Early twentieth century Women in science

marie skłodowska-curie, first woman win nobel prize in 1903 (physics), went on become double nobel prize winner in 1911 (chemistry), both work on radiation. first person win 2 nobel prizes, feat accomplished 3 others since then.

alice perry understood first woman graduate degree in civil engineering in united kingdom of great britain , ireland, in 1906 @ queen s college, galway, ireland.

lise meitner played major role in discovery of nuclear fission. head of physics section @ kaiser wilhelm institute in berlin collaborated closely head of chemistry otto hahn on atomic physics until forced flee berlin in 1938. in 1939, in collaboration nephew otto frisch, meitner derived theoretical explanation experiment performed hahn , fritz strassman in berlin, thereby demonstrating occurrence of nuclear fission. possibility fermi s bombardment of uranium neutrons in 1934 had instead produced fission breaking nucleus lighter elements, had first been raised in print in 1934, chemist ida noddack (co-discover of element rhenium), suggestion had been ignored @ time, no group made concerted effort find of these light radioactive fission products.

maria montessori first woman in southern europe qualify physician. developed interest in diseases of children , believed in necessity of educating recognized ineducable. in case of latter argued development of training teachers along froebelian lines , developed principle inform general educational program, first education of senses, education of intellect. montessori introduced teaching program allowed defective children read , write. sought teach skills not having children repeatedly try it, developing exercises prepare them.

emmy noether revolutionized abstract algebra, filled in gaps in relativity, , responsible critical theorem conserved quantities in physics. 1 notes erlangen program attempted identify invariants under group of transformations. on 16 july 1918, before scientific organization in göttingen, felix klein read paper written emmy noether, because not allowed present paper herself. in particular, in referred in physics noether s theorem, paper identified conditions under poincaré group of transformations (now called gauge group) general relativity defines conservation laws. noether s papers made requirements conservation laws precise. among mathematicians, noether best known fundamental contributions abstract algebra, adjective noetherian nowadays commonly used on many sorts of objects.

mary cartwright british mathematician first analyze dynamical system chaos. inge lehmann, danish seismologist, first suggested in 1936 inside earth s molten core there may solid inner core. women such margaret fountaine continued contribute detailed observations , illustrations in botany, entomology, , related observational fields. joan beauchamp procter, outstanding herpetologist, first woman curator of reptiles zoological society of london @ london zoo.

united states before world war ii

women moved science in significant numbers 1900, helped women s colleges , opportunities @ of new universities. margaret rossiter s books women scientists in america: struggles , strategies 1940 , women scientists in america: before affirmative action 1940–1972 provide overview of period, stressing opportunities women found in separate women s work in science.

ellen swallow richards

in 1892, ellen swallow richards called christening of new science – oekology (ecology) in boston lecture. new science included study of consumer nutrition , environmental education. interdisciplinary branch of science later specialized known ecology, while consumer nutrition focus split off , relabeled home economics., provided avenue women study science. richards helped form american home economics association, published journal, journal of home economics, , hosted conferences. home economics departments formed @ many colleges, @ land grant institutions. in work @ mit, ellen richards introduced first biology course in history focus area of sanitary engineering.

women found opportunities in botany , embryology. in psychology, women earned doctorates encouraged specialize in educational , child psychology , take jobs in clinical settings, such hospitals , social welfare agencies.

in 1901, annie jump cannon first noticed star s temperature principal distinguishing feature among different spectra. led re-ordering of abc types temperature instead of hydrogen absorption-line strength. due cannon s work, of then-existing classes of stars thrown out redundant. afterward, astronomy left 7 primary classes recognized today, in order: o, b, a, f, g, k, m; has since been extended.

henrietta swan leavitt made fundamental contributions astronomy

henrietta swan leavitt first published study of variable stars in 1908. discovery became known period-luminosity relationship of cepheid variables. our picture of universe changed forever, largely because of leavitt s discovery. accomplishments of edwin hubble, renowned american astronomer, made possible leavitt s groundbreaking research , leavitt s law. if henrietta leavitt had provided key determine size of cosmos, edwin powell hubble inserted in lock , provided observations allowed turned , wrote david h. , matthew d.h. clark in book measuring cosmos.

hubble said leavitt deserved nobel work. gösta mittag-leffler of swedish academy of sciences had begun paperwork on nomination in 1924, learn had died of cancer 3 years earlier (the nobel prize cannot awarded posthumously).

in 1925, harvard graduate student cecilia payne-gaposchkin demonstrated first time existing evidence on spectra of stars stars made exclusively of hydrogen , helium, 1 of fundamental theories in stellar astrophysics.

canadian born maud menten worked in , germany. famous work on enzyme kinetics leonor michaelis, based on earlier findings of victor henri. resulted in michaelis–menten equations. menten invented azo-dye coupling reaction alkaline phosphatase, still used in histochemistry. characterised bacterial toxins b. paratyphosus, streptococcus scarlatina , salmonella ssp., , conducted first electrophoretic separation of proteins in 1944. worked on properties of hemoglobin, regulation of blood sugar level, , kidney function.

world war ii brought new opportunities. office of scientific research , development, under vannevar bush, began in 1941 keep registry of men , women trained in sciences. because there shortage of workers, women able work in jobs might not otherwise have accessed. many women worked on manhattan project or on scientific projects united states military services. women worked on manhattan project included leona woods marshall, katharine way, , chien-shiung wu.

women in other disciplines looked ways apply expertise war effort. 3 nutritionists, lydia j. roberts, hazel k. stiebeling, , helen s. mitchell, developed recommended dietary allowance in 1941 military , civilian groups make plans group feeding situations. rdas proved necessary, especially, once foods began rationed. rachel carson worked united states bureau of fisheries, writing brochures encourage americans consume wider variety of fish , seafood. contributed research assist navy in developing techniques , equipment submarine detection.

women in psychology formed national council of women psychologists, organized projects related war effort. ncwp elected florence laura goodenough president. in social sciences, several women contributed japanese evacuation , resettlement study, based @ university of california. study led sociologist dorothy swaine thomas, directed project , synthesized information informants, graduate students in anthropology. these included tamie tsuchiyama, japanese-american woman contribute study, , rosalie hankey wax.

in united states navy, female scientists conducted wide range of research. mary sears, planktonologist, researched military oceanographic techniques head of hydgrographic office s oceanographic unit. florence van straten, chemist, worked aerological engineer. studied effects of weather on military combat. grace hopper, mathematician, became 1 of first computer programmers mark computer. mina spiegel rees, mathematician, chief technical aide applied mathematics panel of national defense research committee.

gerty cori biochemist discovered mechanism glycogen, derivative of glucose, transformed in muscles form lactic acid, , later reformed way store energy. discovery , colleagues awarded nobel prize in 1947, making third woman , first american woman win nobel prize in science. first woman ever awarded nobel prize in physiology or medicine. cori among several scientists works commemorated u.s. postage stamp.