History Women in science

1 history

1.1 ancient history
1.2 medieval europe
1.3 scientific revolution (sixteenth, , seventeenth centuries)
1.4 eighteenth century
1.5 nineteenth century
1.6 late 19th century in europe
1.7 late nineteenth century in united states
1.8 twentieth century

1.8.1 europe before world war ii
1.8.2 united states before world war ii


1.9 later 20th century

1.9.1 europe after world war ii
1.9.2 united states after world war ii
1.9.3 australia after world war ii
1.9.4 israel after world war ii

history
ancient history

the involvement of women in field of medicine has been recorded in several civilizations. ancient egyptian, merit-ptah (c. 2700 bc), described in inscription chief physician , earliest known female scientist named in history of science. agamede cited homer healer in ancient greece before trojan war (c. 1194–1184 bc). agnodike first female physician practice legally in fourth century bc athens.

the study of natural philosophy in ancient greece open women. recorded examples include aglaonike, predicted eclipses; , theano, mathematician , physician, pupil (possibly wife) of pythagoras, , 1 of school in crotone founded pythagoras, included many other women.

during period of babylonian civilization, around 1200 b.c., 2 perfumeresses named tapputi-belatekallim , -ninu (first half of name lost) able obtain essences plants using extraction , distillation procedures. if argue chemistry use of chemical equipment , processes, can identify these 2 women first chemists. during time of egyptian dynasty, women involved in applied chemistry, such making of beer , preparation of medicinal compounds. number of women have been recorded have made major contributions alchemy. many of lived in alexandria around 1st or 2nd centuries ad, gnostic tradition led female contributions being valued. famous of women alchemist, mary jewess, credited inventing several chemical instruments, including double boiler (bain-marie); improvement or creation of distillation equipment of time. such distillation equipment called kerotakis (simple still) , tribikos (a complex distillation device).

hypatia of alexandria (c. 350–415 ad), daughter of theon of alexandria, well-known teacher @ neoplatonic school in alexandria teaching astronomy, philosophy, , mathematics. recognized first known woman mathematician in history through major contributions mathematics. hypatia credited writing 3 major treatises on geometry, algebra , astronomy; invention of hydrometer, astrolabe, , instrument distilling water. there evidence hypatia gave public lectures , may have held sort of public office in alexandria. however, fruitful life cut short in 415 ad christian zealots, known parabalani; stripped her, dismembered her, , pieces of body burned. scholars death marked end of women in science many hundreds of years.

medieval europe

hildegard of bingen

the parts of european middle ages, known dark ages, marked decline of roman empire. latin west left great difficulties affected continent s intellectual production dramatically. although nature still seen system comprehended in light of reason, there little innovative scientific inquiry. arabic world deserves credit preserving scientific advancements. arabic scholars produced original scholarly work , generated copies of manuscripts classical periods. during period, christianity underwent period of resurgence, , western civilization bolstered result. phenomenon was, in part, due monasteries , nunneries nurtured skills of reading , writing, , monks , nuns collected , copied important writings produced scholars of past..

as mentioned before, convents important place of education women during period, monasteries , nunneries encourage skills of reading , writing, , of these communities provided opportunities women contribute scholarly research. example german abbess hildegard of bingen (1098–1179 a.d), famous philosopher , botanists, known prolific writings include treatments of various scientific subjects, including medicine, botany , natural history (c.1151–58). famous german abbess hroswitha of gandersheim (935–1000 a.d.) helped encourage women intellectual. however, growth in number , power of nunneries, all-male clerical hierarchy not welcomed toward it, , stirred conflict having backlash against women s advancement. impacted many religious orders closed on women , disbanded nunneries, , overall excluding women ability learn read , write. that, world of science became closed off women, limiting women s influence in science.

entering 11th century, first universities emerged. women were, part, excluded university education. however, there exceptions. italian university of bologna, example, allowed women attend lectures inception, in 1088.

the attitude educating women in medical fields in italy appears have been more liberal in other places. physician, trotula di ruggiero, supposed have held chair @ medical school of salerno in 11th century, taught many noble italian women, group referred ladies of salerno . several influential texts on women s medicine, dealing obstetrics , gynecology, among other topics, attributed trotula.

dorotea bucca distinguished italian physician. held chair of philosophy , medicine @ university of bologna on forty years 1390. other italian women contributions in medicine have been recorded include abella, jacobina félicie, alessandra giliani, rebecca de guarna, margarita, mercuriade (fourteenth century), constance calenda, calrice di durisio (15th century), constanza, maria incarnata , thomasia de mattio.

despite success of women, cultural biases affecting education , participation in science prominent in middle ages. example, st. thomas aquinas, christian scholar, wrote, referring women, mentally incapable of holding position of authority.

scientific revolution (sixteenth, , seventeenth centuries)

margaret cavendish

margaret cavendish, seventeenth-century aristocrat, took part in of important scientific debates of time. however, not inducted english royal society, although once allowed attend meeting. wrote number of works on scientific matters, including observations upon experimental philosophy (1666) , grounds of natural philosophy. in these works critical of growing belief humans, through science, masters of nature. 1666 work attempted heighten female interest in science. observations provided critique of experimental science of bacon , criticized microscopes imperfect machines.

in germany tradition of female participation in craft production enabled women become involved in observational science, astronomy. between 1650 , 1710, women 14% of german astronomers. famous female astronomer in germany maria winkelmann. educated father , uncle , received training in astronomy nearby self-taught astronomer. chance practising astronomer came when married gottfried kirch, prussia s foremost astronomer. became assistant @ astronomical observatory operated in berlin academy of science. made original contributions, including discovery of comet. when husband died, winkelmann applied position assistant astronomer @ berlin academy – had experience. woman – no university degree – denied post. members of berlin academy feared establish bad example hiring woman. mouths gape , said.

winkelmann s problems berlin academy reflect obstacles women faced in being accepted in scientific work, considered chiefly men. no woman invited either royal society of london nor french academy of sciences until twentieth century. people in seventeenth century viewed life devoted kind of scholarship being @ odds domestic duties women expected perform.

a founder of modern botany , zoology, german maria sibylla merian (1647–1717), spent life investigating nature. when thirteen, sibylla began growing caterpillars , studying metamorphosis butterflies. kept study book recorded investigations natural philosophy. in first publication, new book of flowers, used imagery catalogue lives of plants , insects. after husband died, , brief stint of living in siewert, , daughter journeyed paramaribo 2 years observe insects, birds, reptiles, , amphibians. returned amsterdam , published metamorphosis of insects of suriname, revealed europeans first time astonishing diversity of rain forest. botanist , entomologist known artistic illustrations of plants , insects. uncommon era, traveled south america , surinam, where, assisted daughters, illustrated plant , animal life of regions.

overall, scientific revolution did little change people s ideas nature of women - more - capacity contribute science men do. according jackson spielvogel, male scientists used new science spread view women nature inferior , subordinate men , suited play domestic role nurturing mothers. widespread distribution of books ensured continuation of these ideas .

eighteenth century

laura bassi



maria gaetana agnesi

the eighteenth century characterized 3 divergent views towards woman: women mentally , socially inferior men, equal different, , women potentially equal in both mental ability , contribution society. while individuals such jean-jacques rousseau believed women s roles confined motherhood , service male partners, enlightenment period in women experienced expanded roles in sciences. rise of salon culture in europe brought philosophers , conversation intimate setting men , women met discuss contemporary political, social, , scientific topics. while jean-jacques rousseau attacked women-dominated salons producing ‘effeminate men’ stifled serious discourse, salons characterized in era mixing of sexes. through salons , work in mathematics, physics, botany, , philosophy, women began have significant impact during enlightenment. women not entirely excluded being officially acknowledged scientific world.

the first woman earn university chair in scientific field of studies in europe (indeed in field), laura bassi, second woman obtain doctorate degree in western world , went on being first woman teach @ european university. central introducing newton s ideas of physics , natural philosophy southern europe, presenting numerous dissertations on issues of gravity.

in 1741, prussian king frederick ii. allowed dorothea erxleben (1715–1762) study medicine @ university of halle. first german women receive phd (1754). in 1742 dorothea erxleben published tract arguing women should allowed attend university.

in 1741, charlotta frölich, first female historian in sweden, became first of sex published royal swedish academy of science, , in 1748, eva ekeblad became first woman inducted academy.

italian maria gaetana agnesi first woman write mathematics handbook , first woman appointed mathematics professor @ university (although never taught). in 1748 wrote used text on finite , infinitesimal analysis.

Émilie du châtelet, close friend of voltaire , first-rate physicist in own right, first scientist appreciate significance of kinetic energy, opposed momentum. repeated , described importance of experiment devised willem s gravesande showing impact of falling objects proportional not velocity, velocity squared. understanding considered have made profound contribution newtonian mechanics.

as many experiments took place in home, women located assist husbands , family members experiments. among best known of these scientific wives marie-anne pierrette paulze, married antoine lavoisier @ thirteen , became assistant in home laboratory, in discovered oxygen. mme. lavoisier spoke english, , translated husband s correspondence english chemists, , richard kirwan s essay on phlogiston, key text in controversy english chemists such joseph priestley on nature of heat in chemical reactions. mme lavoisier took drawing lessons jacques-louis david , drew diagrams husband s traite elementaire de chimie (1789). mme. lavoisier maintained small lively salon , corresponded french scientists , naturalists, many of whom impressed intellect.

science personified woman, illuminating nature light. museum ticket late eighteenth century

although women excelled in many scientific areas during eighteenth century, discouraged learning plant reproduction. carl linnaeus system of plant classification based on sexual characteristics drew attention botanical licentiousness, , people feared women learn immoral lessons nature s example. women depicted both innately emotional , incapable of objective reasoning, or natural mothers reproducing natural, moral society.

even such characterizations, author lady mary wortley montagu, known prolific letter writing, pioneered smallpox inoculation in england. first observed inoculations while visiting ottoman empire, wrote detailed accounts of practice in letters [8].

laura bassi (1711–1778), member of italian academy of institute of sciences , chair of institute of experimental physics, became world s first female professor.

the english caroline herschel added scientific knowledge of time. herschel, great astronomer, born in hanover moved england acted assistant brother, william herschel. there learned mathematics. received small salary king george iii (agnesscott.edu) , first woman recognized scientific position. discovered 8 comets between 1786 , 1797, , submitted index flamsteed s observations of fixed stars (including on 5 hundred omitted stars) royal society in 1798, becoming first woman present paper there. in 1835, , mary fairfax somerville first 2 women awarded honorary memberships in royal astronomical society (source).

although defined gender roles remained largely unchanged in 18th century, women experienced great advances in science. whether through emilie du châtelet in translating newton s principia or caroline herschel discovering 8 comets, women made great strides toward gender equality in sciences during time.

early nineteenth century

science remained largely amateur profession during part of nineteenth century. women s contributions limited exclusion formal scientific education, began recognized admittance learned societies during period.

scottish scientist mary fairfax somerville carried out experiments in magnetism, presenting paper entitled magnetic properties of violet rays of solar spectrum royal society in 1826, second woman so. wrote several mathematical, astronomical, physical , geographical texts, , strong advocate women s education. in 1835, , caroline herschel first 2 women elected honorary members of royal astronomical society.

english mathematician ada, lady lovelace, pupil of somerville, corresponded charles babbage applications analytical engine. in notes (1842–3) appended translation of luigi menabrea s article on engine, foresaw wide applications general-purpose computer, including composing music. has been credited writing first computer program, though has been disputed.

in germany, institutes higher education of women (höhere töchterschule, in regions called lyzeum) founded @ beginning of century. deaconess institute @ kaiserswerth established in 1836 instruct women in nursing. elizabeth fry visited institute in 1840 , inspired found london institute of nursing, , florence nightingale studied there in 1851.

in us, maria mitchell made name discovering comet in 1847, contributed calculations nautical almanac produced united states naval observatory. became first woman member of american academy of arts , sciences in 1848 , of american association advancement of science in 1850.

other notable female scientists during period include:

in britain, mary anning (paleontologist), anna atkins (botanist), janet taylor (astronomer);
in france, marie-sophie germain (mathematician), jeanne villepreux-power (marine biologist).

late 19th century in europe

the latter part of 19th century saw rise in educational opportunities women. schools aiming provide education girls similar afforded boys founded in uk, including north london collegiate school (1850), cheltenham ladies college (1853) , girls public day school trust schools (from 1872). first uk women s university college, girton, founded in 1869, , others followed: newnham (1871) , somerville (1879).

the crimean war (1854–6) contributed establishing nursing profession, making florence nightingale household name. public subscription allowed nightingale establish school of nursing in london in 1860, , schools following principles established throughout uk. nightingale pioneer in public health statistician.

james barry became first british woman gain medical qualification in 1812, passing man. elizabeth garrett anderson first openly female briton qualify medically, in 1865. sophia jex-blake, american elizabeth blackwell , others, garret anderson founded first uk medical school train women, london school of medicine women, in 1874.

annie scott dill maunder

annie scott dill maunder pioneer in astronomical photography, of sunspots. mathematics graduate of girton college, cambridge, first hired (in 1890) assistant edward walter maunder, discoverer of maunder minimum, head of solar department @ greenwich observatory. worked observe sunspots , refine techniques of solar photography. married in 1895. annie s mathematical skills made possible analyse years of sunspot data maunder had been collecting @ greenwich. designed small, portable wide-angle camera 1.5-inch-diameter (38 mm) lens. in 1898, maunders traveled india, annie took first photographs of sun s corona during solar eclipse. analysing cambridge records both sunspots , geomagnetic storm, able show specific regions of sun s surface source of geomagnetic storms , sun did not radiate energy uniformly space, william thomson, 1st baron kelvin had declared.

in prussia women go university 1894 , allowed receive phd. in 1908 remaining restrictions women terminated.

other notable female scientists during period include:

in britain, hertha marks ayrton (mathematician, engineer), margaret huggins (astronomer), beatrix potter (mycologist);
in france, dorothea klumpke-roberts (american-born astronomer);
in germany, amalie dietrich (naturalist), agnes pockels (physicist);
in russia, sofia kovalevskaya (mathematician).

late nineteenth century in united states

in later nineteenth century rise of women s college provided jobs women scientists, , opportunities education. women s colleges produced disproportionate number of women went on phds in science. many coeducational colleges , universities opened or started admit women during period; such institutions included on 3000 women in 1875, 1900 numbered 20,000.

an example elizabeth blackwell, became first certified female doctor in when graduated geneva medical college in 1849. sister, emily blackwell, , marie zakrzewska, blackwell founded new york infirmary women , children in 1857 , first women s medical college in 1868, providing both training , clinical experience women doctors. published several books on medical education women.

in 1876, elizabeth bragg became first woman graduate civil engineering degree in united states, university of california, berkeley.

early twentieth century
europe before world war ii

marie skłodowska-curie, first woman win nobel prize in 1903 (physics), went on become double nobel prize winner in 1911 (chemistry), both work on radiation. first person win 2 nobel prizes, feat accomplished 3 others since then.

alice perry understood first woman graduate degree in civil engineering in united kingdom of great britain , ireland, in 1906 @ queen s college, galway, ireland.

lise meitner played major role in discovery of nuclear fission. head of physics section @ kaiser wilhelm institute in berlin collaborated closely head of chemistry otto hahn on atomic physics until forced flee berlin in 1938. in 1939, in collaboration nephew otto frisch, meitner derived theoretical explanation experiment performed hahn , fritz strassman in berlin, thereby demonstrating occurrence of nuclear fission. possibility fermi s bombardment of uranium neutrons in 1934 had instead produced fission breaking nucleus lighter elements, had first been raised in print in 1934, chemist ida noddack (co-discover of element rhenium), suggestion had been ignored @ time, no group made concerted effort find of these light radioactive fission products.

maria montessori first woman in southern europe qualify physician. developed interest in diseases of children , believed in necessity of educating recognized ineducable. in case of latter argued development of training teachers along froebelian lines , developed principle inform general educational program, first education of senses, education of intellect. montessori introduced teaching program allowed defective children read , write. sought teach skills not having children repeatedly try it, developing exercises prepare them.

emmy noether revolutionized abstract algebra, filled in gaps in relativity, , responsible critical theorem conserved quantities in physics. 1 notes erlangen program attempted identify invariants under group of transformations. on 16 july 1918, before scientific organization in göttingen, felix klein read paper written emmy noether, because not allowed present paper herself. in particular, in referred in physics noether s theorem, paper identified conditions under poincaré group of transformations (now called gauge group) general relativity defines conservation laws. noether s papers made requirements conservation laws precise. among mathematicians, noether best known fundamental contributions abstract algebra, adjective noetherian nowadays commonly used on many sorts of objects.

mary cartwright british mathematician first analyze dynamical system chaos. inge lehmann, danish seismologist, first suggested in 1936 inside earth s molten core there may solid inner core. women such margaret fountaine continued contribute detailed observations , illustrations in botany, entomology, , related observational fields. joan beauchamp procter, outstanding herpetologist, first woman curator of reptiles zoological society of london @ london zoo.

united states before world war ii

women moved science in significant numbers 1900, helped women s colleges , opportunities @ of new universities. margaret rossiter s books women scientists in america: struggles , strategies 1940 , women scientists in america: before affirmative action 1940–1972 provide overview of period, stressing opportunities women found in separate women s work in science.

ellen swallow richards

in 1892, ellen swallow richards called christening of new science – oekology (ecology) in boston lecture. new science included study of consumer nutrition , environmental education. interdisciplinary branch of science later specialized known ecology, while consumer nutrition focus split off , relabeled home economics., provided avenue women study science. richards helped form american home economics association, published journal, journal of home economics, , hosted conferences. home economics departments formed @ many colleges, @ land grant institutions. in work @ mit, ellen richards introduced first biology course in history focus area of sanitary engineering.

women found opportunities in botany , embryology. in psychology, women earned doctorates encouraged specialize in educational , child psychology , take jobs in clinical settings, such hospitals , social welfare agencies.

in 1901, annie jump cannon first noticed star s temperature principal distinguishing feature among different spectra. led re-ordering of abc types temperature instead of hydrogen absorption-line strength. due cannon s work, of then-existing classes of stars thrown out redundant. afterward, astronomy left 7 primary classes recognized today, in order: o, b, a, f, g, k, m; has since been extended.

henrietta swan leavitt made fundamental contributions astronomy

henrietta swan leavitt first published study of variable stars in 1908. discovery became known period-luminosity relationship of cepheid variables. our picture of universe changed forever, largely because of leavitt s discovery. accomplishments of edwin hubble, renowned american astronomer, made possible leavitt s groundbreaking research , leavitt s law. if henrietta leavitt had provided key determine size of cosmos, edwin powell hubble inserted in lock , provided observations allowed turned , wrote david h. , matthew d.h. clark in book measuring cosmos.

hubble said leavitt deserved nobel work. gösta mittag-leffler of swedish academy of sciences had begun paperwork on nomination in 1924, learn had died of cancer 3 years earlier (the nobel prize cannot awarded posthumously).

in 1925, harvard graduate student cecilia payne-gaposchkin demonstrated first time existing evidence on spectra of stars stars made exclusively of hydrogen , helium, 1 of fundamental theories in stellar astrophysics.

canadian born maud menten worked in , germany. famous work on enzyme kinetics leonor michaelis, based on earlier findings of victor henri. resulted in michaelis–menten equations. menten invented azo-dye coupling reaction alkaline phosphatase, still used in histochemistry. characterised bacterial toxins b. paratyphosus, streptococcus scarlatina , salmonella ssp., , conducted first electrophoretic separation of proteins in 1944. worked on properties of hemoglobin, regulation of blood sugar level, , kidney function.

world war ii brought new opportunities. office of scientific research , development, under vannevar bush, began in 1941 keep registry of men , women trained in sciences. because there shortage of workers, women able work in jobs might not otherwise have accessed. many women worked on manhattan project or on scientific projects united states military services. women worked on manhattan project included leona woods marshall, katharine way, , chien-shiung wu.

women in other disciplines looked ways apply expertise war effort. 3 nutritionists, lydia j. roberts, hazel k. stiebeling, , helen s. mitchell, developed recommended dietary allowance in 1941 military , civilian groups make plans group feeding situations. rdas proved necessary, especially, once foods began rationed. rachel carson worked united states bureau of fisheries, writing brochures encourage americans consume wider variety of fish , seafood. contributed research assist navy in developing techniques , equipment submarine detection.

women in psychology formed national council of women psychologists, organized projects related war effort. ncwp elected florence laura goodenough president. in social sciences, several women contributed japanese evacuation , resettlement study, based @ university of california. study led sociologist dorothy swaine thomas, directed project , synthesized information informants, graduate students in anthropology. these included tamie tsuchiyama, japanese-american woman contribute study, , rosalie hankey wax.

in united states navy, female scientists conducted wide range of research. mary sears, planktonologist, researched military oceanographic techniques head of hydgrographic office s oceanographic unit. florence van straten, chemist, worked aerological engineer. studied effects of weather on military combat. grace hopper, mathematician, became 1 of first computer programmers mark computer. mina spiegel rees, mathematician, chief technical aide applied mathematics panel of national defense research committee.

gerty cori biochemist discovered mechanism glycogen, derivative of glucose, transformed in muscles form lactic acid, , later reformed way store energy. discovery , colleagues awarded nobel prize in 1947, making third woman , first american woman win nobel prize in science. first woman ever awarded nobel prize in physiology or medicine. cori among several scientists works commemorated u.s. postage stamp.

later 20th century

nina byers notes before 1976, fundamental contributions of women physics acknowledged. women worked unpaid or in positions lacking status deserved. imbalance gradually being redressed.

in 1980s, margaret rossiter presented 2 concepts understanding statistics behind women in science disadvantages women continued suffer. coined terms hierarchical segregation , territorial segregation. former term describes phenomenon in further 1 goes chain of command in field, smaller presence of women. latter describes phenomenon in women cluster in scientific disciplines.

a recent book titled athena unbound provides life-course analysis (based on interviews , surveys) of women in science childhood interest, through university, graduate school , academic workplace. thesis of book women face special series of gender related barriers entry , success in scientific careers persist, despite recent advances .

the l oréal-unesco awards women in science set in 1998, prizes alternating each year between materials science , life sciences. 1 award given each geographical region of africa , middle east, asia-pacific, europe, latin america , caribbean, , north america. 2017, these awards had recognised 100 laureates 30 countries. 2 of laureates have gone on win nobel prize, ada yonath (2008) , elizabeth blackburn (2009). fifteen promising young researchers receive international rising talent fellowship each year within programme.

europe after world war ii

south-african born physicist , radiobiologist tikvah alper(1909–95), working in uk, developed many fundamental insights biological mechanisms, including (negative) discovery infective agent in scrapie not virus or other eukaryotic structure.
french virologist françoise barré-sinoussi performed of fundamental work in identification of human immunodeficiency virus (hiv) cause of aids, shared 2008 nobel prize in physiology or medicine.
in july 1967, jocelyn bell burnell discovered evidence first known radio pulsar, resulted in 1974 nobel prize in physics supervisor. president of institute of physics october 2008 until october 2010.
astrophysicist margaret burbidge member of bfh group responsible originating theory of stellar nucleosynthesis, explains how elements formed in stars. has held number of prestigious posts, including directorship of royal greenwich observatory.
mary cartwright mathematician , student of g. h. hardy. work on nonlinear differential equations influential in field of dynamical systems.
rosalind franklin crystallographer, work helped elucidate fine structures of coal, graphite, dna , viruses. in 1953, work did on dna allowed watson , crick conceive model of structure of dna. photograph of dna gave watson , crick basis dna research, , awarded nobel prize without giving due credit franklin, had died of cancer in 1958.
jane goodall british primatologist considered world s foremost expert on chimpanzees.
dorothy hodgkin analyzed molecular structure of complex chemicals studying diffraction patterns caused passing x-rays through crystals. won 1964 nobel prize chemistry.
irène joliot-curie, daughter of marie curie, won 1935 nobel prize chemistry husband frédéric joliot work in radioactive isotopes leading nuclear fission.
palaeoanthropologist mary leakey discovered first skull of fossil ape on rusinga island , noted robust australopithecine.
italian neurologist rita levi-montalcini received 1986 nobel prize in physiology or medicine discovery of nerve growth factor (ngf). appointed senator life in italian senate in 2001 , oldest nobel laureate ever have lived.* zoologist anne mclaren conducted studied in genetics led advances in in vitro fertilization. became first female officer of royal society in 331 years.
christiane nüsslein-volhard received nobel prize in physiology or medicine in 1995 research on genetic control of embryonic development. started christiane nüsslein-volhard foundation (christiane nüsslein-volhard stiftung), aid promising young female german scientists children.
bertha swirles theoretical physicist made number of contributions quantum theory. co-authored well-known textbook methods of mathematical physics husband sir harold jeffreys.
bessa vugo physiologist , collaborator of jacques monod, work helped understand structure of taste buds, , psychological aspects of taste.

united states after world war ii


kay mcnulty, betty jennings, betty snyder, marlyn wescoff, fran bilas , ruth lichterman 6 of original programmers eniac, first general purpose electronic computer.
linda b. buck neurobiologist awarded 2004 nobel prize in physiology or medicine along richard axel work on olfactory receptors.
biologist , activist rachel carson published silent spring, work on dangers of pesticides, in 1962.
eugenie clark, popularly known shark lady, american ichthyologist known research on poisonous fish of tropical seas , on behavior of sharks.
ann druyan american writer, lecturer , producer specializing in cosmology , popular science. druyan has credited knowledge of science 20 years spent studying late husband, carl sagan, rather formal academic training. responsible selection of music on voyager golden record voyager 1 , voyager 2 exploratory missions. druyan sponsored cosmos 1 spacecraft.
gertrude b. elion american biochemist , pharmacologist, awarded nobel prize in physiology or medicine in 1988 work on differences in biochemistry between normal human cells , pathogens.
sandra moore faber, robert jackson, discovered faber–jackson relation between luminosity , stellar dispersion velocity in elliptical galaxies. headed team discovered great attractor, large concentration of mass pulling number of nearby galaxies in direction.
zoologist dian fossey worked gorillas in africa 1967 until murder in 1985.
astronomer andrea ghez received macarthur genius grant in 2008 work in surmounting limitations of earthbound telescopes.
maria goeppert-mayer second female nobel prize winner in physics, proposing nuclear shell model of atomic nucleus. earlier in career, had worked in unofficial or volunteer positions @ university husband professor. goeppert-mayer 1 of several scientists works commemorated u.s. postage stamp.
sulamith low goldhaber , husband gerson goldhaber formed research team on k meson , other high-energy particles in 1950s.
carol greider , australian born elizabeth blackburn, along jack w. szostak, received 2009 nobel prize in physiology or medicine discovery of how chromosomes protected telomeres , enzyme telomerase.
rear admiral grace murray hopper developed first computer compiler while working eckert mauchly computer corporation, released in 1952.
deborah s. jin s team @ jila, in boulder, colorado in 2003 produced first fermionic condensate, new state of matter.
stephanie kwolek, researcher @ dupont, invented poly-paraphenylene terephthalamide – better known kevlar.
lynn margulis biologist best known work on endosymbiotic theory, accepted how organelles formed.
barbara mcclintock s studies of maize genetics demonstrated genetic transposition in 1940s , 1950s. dedicated life research, , awarded nobel prize in physiology or medicine in 1983. mcclintock 1 of several scientists works commemorated u.s. postage stamp.
nita ahuja renowned surgeon-scientist known work on cimp in cancer, chief of surgical oncology @ johns hopkins hospital. first woman ever chief of prestigious department.
carolyn porco planetary scientist best known work on voyager program , cassini–huygens mission saturn. known popularization of science, in particular space exploration.
physicist helen quinn, roberto peccei, postulated peccei-quinn symmetry. 1 consequence particle known axion, candidate dark matter pervades universe. prof. quinn first woman receive dirac medal , first receive oskar klein medal.
lisa randall theoretical physicist , cosmologist, best known work on randall–sundrum model. first tenured female physics professor @ princeton university.
sally ride astrophysicist , first american woman, , then-youngest american, travel outer space. ride wrote or co-wrote several books on space aimed @ children, goal of encouraging them study science. ride participated in gravity probe b (gp-b) project, provided more evidence predictions of einstein s general theory of relativity correct.
through observations of galaxy rotation curves, astronomer vera rubin discovered galaxy rotation problem, taken 1 of key pieces of evidence existence of dark matter. first female allowed observe @ palomar observatory.
sara seager canadian-american astronomer professor @ massachusetts institute of technology , known work on extrasolar planets.
astronomer jill tarter director of seti.
rosalyn yalow co-winner of 1977 nobel prize in physiology or medicine (together roger guillemin , andrew schally) development of radioimmunoassay (ria) technique.

australia after world war ii

amanda barnard, australia-based theoretical physicist specializing in nanomaterials, winner of malcolm mcintosh prize physical scientist of year.
isobel bennett, 1 of first women go macquarie island australian national antarctic research expeditions (anare). 1 of australia s best known marine biologists.
dorothy hill, australian geologist became first female professor @ australian university.
ruby payne-scott, australian leader in fields of radio astronomy , radiophysics. 1 of first radio astronomers , first woman in field.
penny sackett, astronomer became first female chief scientist of australia in 2008. us-born australian citizen.
fiona stanley, winner of 2003 australian of year award, epidemiologist noted research child , maternal health, birth disorders, , work in public health field.

israel after world war ii

ada yonath, first woman middle east win nobel prize in sciences, awarded nobel prize in chemistry in 2009 studies on structure , function of ribosome.

latin america

maria nieves garcia-casal, first scientist , nutritionist woman latin america lead latin america society of nutrition.