Hellenistic Middle East Hellenistic period

1 hellenistic middle east

1.1 ptolemaic kingdom
1.2 seleucid empire
1.3 attalid pergamum
1.4 galatia
1.5 bithynia
1.6 cappadocia
1.7 kingdom of pontus
1.8 armenia
1.9 parthia
1.10 nabatean kingdom
1.11 judea

hellenistic middle east

the hellenistic states of asia , egypt run occupying imperial elite of greco-macedonian administrators , governors propped standing army of mercenaries , small core of greco-macedonian settlers. promotion of immigration greece important in establishment of system. hellenistic monarchs ran kingdoms royal estates , of heavy tax revenues went military , paramilitary forces preserved rule kind of revolution. macedonian , hellenistic monarchs expected lead armies on field, along group of privileged aristocratic companions or friends (hetairoi, philoi) dined , drank king , acted advisory council. monarch expected serve charitable patron of people; public philanthropy mean building projects , handing out gifts promotion of greek culture , religion.

ptolemaic kingdom


bust of ptolemy soter wearing diadem, symbol of hellenistic kingship, louvre museum.

ptolemy, somatophylax, 1 of 7 bodyguards served alexander great s generals , deputies, appointed satrap of egypt after alexander s death in 323 bc. in 305 bc, declared himself king ptolemy i, later known soter (saviour) role in helping rhodians during siege of rhodes. ptolemy built new cities such ptolemais hermiou in upper egypt , settled veterans throughout country, in region of faiyum. alexandria, major center of greek culture , trade, became capital city. egypt s first port city, main grain exporter in mediterranean.

the egyptians begrudgingly accepted ptolemies successors pharaohs of independent egypt, though kingdom went through several native revolts. ptolemies took on traditions of egyptian pharaohs, such marrying siblings (ptolemy ii first adopt custom), having portrayed on public monuments in egyptian style , dress, , participating in egyptian religious life. ptolemaic ruler cult portrayed ptolemies gods, , temples ptolemies erected throughout kingdom. ptolemy created new god, serapis, combination of 2 egyptian gods: apis , osiris, attributes of greek gods. ptolemaic administration was, ancient egyptian bureaucracy, highly centralized , focused on squeezing revenue out of population possible though tariffs, excise duties, fines, taxes , forth. whole class of petty officials, tax farmers, clerks , overseers made possible. egyptian countryside directly administered royal bureaucracy. external possessions such cyprus , cyrene run strategoi, military commanders appointed crown.

ring of ptolemy vi philometor egyptian pharaoh. louvre museum.

under ptolemy ii, callimachus, apollonius of rhodes, theocritus , host of other poets made city center of hellenistic literature. ptolemy himself eager patronise library, scientific research , individual scholars lived on grounds of library. , successors fought series of wars seleucids, known syrian wars, on region of coele-syria. ptolemy iv won great battle of raphia (217 bc) against seleucids, using native egyptians trained phalangites. these egyptian soldiers revolted, setting native breakaway egyptian state in thebaid between 205-186/5 bc, severely weakening ptolemaic state.

ptolemy s family ruled egypt until roman conquest of 30 bc. male rulers of dynasty took name ptolemy. ptolemaic queens, of whom sisters of husbands, called cleopatra, arsinoe, or berenice. famous member of line last queen, cleopatra vii, known role in roman political battles between julius caesar , pompey, , later between octavian , mark antony. suicide @ conquest rome marked end of ptolemaic rule in egypt though hellenistic culture continued thrive in egypt throughout roman , byzantine periods until muslim conquest.

seleucid empire

seleucus nicator.

following division of alexander s empire, seleucus nicator received babylonia. there, created new empire expanded include of alexander s near eastern territories. @ height of power, included central anatolia, levant, mesopotamia, persia, today s turkmenistan, pamir, , parts of pakistan. included diverse population estimated @ fifty sixty million people. under antiochus (c. 324/3 – 261 bc), however, unwieldy empire beginning shed territories. pergamum broke away under eumenes defeated seleucid army sent against him. kingdoms of cappadocia, bithynia , pontus practically independent time well. ptolemies, antiochus established dynastic religious cult, deifying father seleucus i. seleucus, officially said descended apollo, had own priests , monthly sacrifices. erosion of empire continued under seleucus ii, forced fight civil war (239-236) against brother antiochus hierax , unable keep bactria, sogdiana , parthia breaking away. hierax carved off of seleucid anatolia himself, defeated, along galatian allies, attalus of pergamon claimed kingship.

the hellenistic world c. 200 bc.

the vast seleucid empire was, egypt, dominated greco-macedonian political elite. greek population of cities formed dominant elite reinforced emigration greece. these cities included newly founded colonies such antioch, other cities of syrian tetrapolis, seleucia (north of babylon) , dura-europos on euphrates. these cities retained traditional greek city state institutions such assemblies, councils , elected magistrates, facade controlled royal seleucid officials. apart these cities, there large number of seleucid garrisons (choria), military colonies (katoikiai) , greek villages (komai) seleucids planted throughout empire cement rule. greco-macedonian population (which included sons of settlers had married local women) make phalanx of 35,000 men (out of total seleucid army of 80,000) during reign of antiochos iii. rest of army made of native troops. antiochus iii ( great ) conducted several vigorous campaigns retake lost provinces of empire since death of seleucus i. after being defeated ptolemy iv s forces @ raphia (217), antiochus iii led long campaign east subdue far eastern breakaway provinces (212-205) including bactria, parthia, ariana, sogdiana, gedrosia , drangiana. successful, bringing of these provinces @ least nominal vassalage , receiving tribute rulers. after death of ptolemy iv (204), antiochus took advantage of weakness of egypt conquer coele-syria in fifth syrian war (202-195). began expanding influence pergamene territory in asia , crossed europe, fortifying lysimachia on hellespont, expansion anatolia , greece abruptly halted after decisive defeat @ battle of magnesia (190 bc). in treaty of apamea ended war, antiochus lost of territories in anatolia west of taurus , forced pay large indemnity of 15,000 talents.

much of eastern part of empire conquered parthians under mithridates of parthia in mid-2nd century bc, yet seleucid kings continued rule rump state syria until invasion armenian king tigranes great , ultimate overthrow roman general pompey.

attalid pergamum

after death of lysimachus, 1 of officers, philetaerus, took control of city of pergamum in 282 bc along lysimachus war chest of 9,000 talents , declared himself loyal seleucus while remaining de facto independent. descendant, attalus i, defeated invading galatians , proclaimed himself independent king. attalus (241–197 bc), staunch ally of rome against philip v of macedon during first , second macedonian wars. support against seleucids in 190 bc, eumenes ii rewarded former seleucid domains in asia minor. eumenes ii turned pergamon centre of culture , science establishing library of pergamum said second library of alexandria 200,000 volumes according plutarch. included reading room , collection of paintings. eumenes ii constructed pergamum altar friezes depicting gigantomachy on acropolis of city. pergamum center of parchment (charta pergamena) production. attalids ruled pergamon until attalus iii bequeathed kingdom roman republic in 133 bc avoid succession crisis.

galatia


the dying gaul roman marble copy of hellenistic work of late 3rd century bc. capitoline museums, rome.

the celts settled in galatia came through thrace under leadership of leotarios , leonnorios c. 270 bc. defeated seleucus in battle of elephants , still able establish celtic territory in central anatolia. galatians respected warriors , used mercenaries in armies of successor states. continued attack neighboring kingdoms such bithynia , pergamon, plundering , extracting tribute. came end when sided renegade seleucid prince antiochus hierax tried defeat attalus, ruler of pergamon (241–197 bc). attalus severely defeated gauls, forcing them confine galatia. theme of dying gaul (a famous statue displayed in pergamon) remained favorite in hellenistic art generation signifying victory of greeks on noble enemy. in 2nd century bc, galatians became allies of antiochus great, last seleucid king trying regain suzerainty on asia minor. in 189 bc, rome sent gnaeus manlius vulso on expedition against galatians. galatia henceforth dominated rome through regional rulers 189 bc onward.

after defeats pergamon , rome galatians became hellenized , called gallo-graeci historian justin Ἑλληνογαλάται (hellēnogalátai) diodorus siculus in bibliotheca historica v.32.5, wrote called helleno-galatians because of connection greeks.

bithynia

the bithynians thracian people living in northwest anatolia. after alexander s conquests region of bithynia came under rule of native king bas, defeated calas, general of alexander great, , maintained independence of bithynia. son, zipoetes of bithynia maintained autonomy against lysimachus , seleucus i, , assumed title of king (basileus) in 297 bc. son , successor, nicomedes i, founded nicomedia, rose great prosperity, , during long reign (c. 278 – c. 255 bc), of successors, kingdom of bithynia held considerable place among minor monarchies of anatolia. nicomedes invited celtic galatians anatolia mercenaries, , later turned on son prusias i, defeated them in battle. last king, nicomedes iv, unable maintain himself against mithridates vi of pontus, and, after being restored throne roman senate, bequeathed kingdom roman republic (74 bc).

cappadocia

cappadocia, mountainous region situated between pontus , taurus mountains, ruled persian dynasty. ariarathes (332–322 bc) satrap of cappadocia under persians , after conquests of alexander retained post. after alexander s death defeated eumenes , crucified in 322 bc, son, ariarathes ii managed regain throne , maintain autonomy against warring diadochi.

in 255 bc, ariarathes iii took title of king , married stratonice, daughter of antiochus ii, remaining ally of seleucid kingdom. under ariarathes iv, cappadocia came relations rome, first foe espousing cause of antiochus great, ally against perseus of macedon , in war against seleucids. ariarathes v waged war rome against aristonicus, claimant throne of pergamon, , forces annihilated in 130 bc. defeat allowed pontus invade , conquer kingdom.

kingdom of pontus


bust of mithridates vi sporting lion pelt headdress, symbol of herakles.

the kingdom of pontus hellenistic kingdom on southern coast of black sea. founded mithridates in 291 bc , lasted until conquest roman republic in 63 bc. despite being ruled dynasty descendant of persian achaemenid empire became hellenized due influence of greek cities on black sea , neighboring kingdoms. pontic culture mix of greek , iranian elements; hellenized parts of kingdom on coast, populated greek colonies such trapezus , sinope, latter of became capital of kingdom. epigraphic evidence shows extensive hellenistic influence in interior. during reign of mithridates ii, pontus allied seleucids through dynastic marriages. time of mithridates vi eupator, greek official language of kingdom, though anatolian languages continued spoken.

the kingdom grew largest extent under mithridates vi, conquered colchis, cappadocia, paphlagonia, bithynia, lesser armenia, bosporan kingdom, greek colonies of tauric chersonesos and, brief time, roman province of asia. mithridates vi, himself of mixed persian , greek ancestry, presented himself protector of greeks against barbarians of rome styling himself king mithridates eupator dionysus , great liberator . mithridates depicted himself anastole hairstyle of alexander , used symbolism of herakles, whom macedonian kings claimed descent. after long struggle rome in mithridatic wars, pontus defeated; part of incorporated roman republic province of bithynia, while pontus eastern half survived client kingdom.

armenia


tigranes great s armenian empire

orontid armenia formally passed empire of alexander great following conquest of persia. alexander appointed orontid named mithranes govern armenia. armenia later became vassal state of seleucid empire, maintained considerable degree of autonomy, retaining native rulers. towards end 212 bc country divided 2 kingdoms, greater armenia , armenia sophene, including commagene or armenia minor. kingdoms became independent seleucid control antiochus iii great waged war on them during reign , replaced rulers.

after seleucid defeat @ battle of magnesia in 190 bc, kings of sophene , greater armenia revolted , declared independence, artaxias becoming first king of artaxiad dynasty of armenia in 188. during reign of artaxiads, armenia went through period of hellenization. numismatic evidence shows greek artistic styles , use of greek language. coins describe armenian kings philhellenes . during reign of tigranes great (95–55 bc), kingdom of armenia reached greatest extent, containing many greek cities, including entire syrian tetrapolis. cleopatra, wife of tigranes great, invited greeks such rhetor amphicrates , historian metrodorus of scepsis armenian court, and—according plutarch—when roman general lucullus seized armenian capital, tigranocerta, found troupe of greek actors had arrived perform plays tigranes. tigranes successor artavasdes ii composed greek tragedies himself.

parthia


coin of phraates iv hellenistic titles such euergetes, epiphanes , philhellene (admirer of greeks)

parthia north-eastern iranian satrapy of achaemenid empire later passed on alexander s empire. under seleucids, parthia governed various greek satraps such nicanor , philip. in 247 bc, following death of antiochus ii theos, andragoras, seleucid governor of parthia, proclaimed independence , began minting coins showing himself wearing royal diadem , claiming kingship. ruled until 238 bc when arsaces, leader of parni tribe conquered parthia, killing andragoras , inaugurating arsacid dynasty. antiochus iii recaptured arsacid controlled territory in 209 bc arsaces ii. arsaces ii sued peace , became vassal of seleucids. not until reign of phraates (168–165 bc), arsacids again begin assert independence.

during reign of mithridates of parthia, arsacid control expanded include herat (in 167 bc), babylonia (in 144 bc), media (in 141 bc), persia (in 139 bc), , large parts of syria (in 110s bc). seleucid–parthian wars continued seleucids invaded mesopotamia under antiochus vii sidetes (r. 138–129 bc), killed parthian counterattack. after fall of seleucid dynasty, parthians fought against neighbouring rome in roman–parthian wars (66 bc – 217 ad). abundant traces of hellenism continued under parthian empire. parthians used greek own parthian language (though lesser greek) languages of administration , used greek drachmas coinage. enjoyed greek theater, , greek art influenced parthian art. parthians continued worshipping greek gods syncretized iranian deities. rulers established ruler cults in manner of hellenistic kings , used hellenistic royal epithets.

nabatean kingdom


al-khazneh in petra shows hellenistic influences on nabatean capital city

the nabatean kingdom arab state located between sinai peninsula , arabian peninsula. capital city of petra, important trading city on incense route. nabateans resisted attacks of antigonus , allies of hasmoneans in struggle against seleucids, later fought against herod great. hellenization of nabateans occurred relatively late in comparison surrounding regions. nabatean material culture not show greek influence until reign of aretas iii philhellene in 1st century bc. aretas captured damascus , built petra pool complex , gardens in hellenistic style. though nabateans worshipped traditional gods in symbolic form such stone blocks or pillars, during hellenistic period began identify gods greek gods , depict them in figurative forms influenced greek sculpture. nabatean art shows greek influences , paintings have been found depicting dionysian scenes. adopted greek language of commerce along aramaic , arabic.

judea



model of herod s temple (renovation of second temple) in israel museum

during hellenistic period, judea became frontier region between seleucid empire , ptolemaic egypt , therefore frontline of syrian wars, changing hands several times during these conflicts. under hellenistic kingdoms, judea ruled hereditary office of high priest of israel hellenistic vassal. period saw rise of hellenistic judaism, first developed in jewish diaspora of alexandria , antioch, , spread judea. major literary product of cultural syncretism septuagint translation of hebrew bible biblical hebrew , biblical aramaic koiné greek. reason production of translation seems many of alexandrian jews had lost ability speak hebrew , aramaic.

between 301 , 219 bc ptolemies ruled judea in relative peace, , jews found working in ptolemaic administration , army, led rise of hellenized jewish elite class (e.g. tobiads). wars of antiochus iii brought region seleucid empire; jerusalem fell control in 198 , temple repaired , provided money , tribute. antiochus iv epiphanes sacked jerusalem , looted temple in 169 bc after disturbances in judea during abortive invasion of egypt. antiochus banned key jewish religious rites , traditions in judea. may have been attempting hellenize region , unify empire , jewish resistance led escalation of violence. whatever case, tensions between pro , anti-seleucid jewish factions led 174–135 bc maccabean revolt of judas maccabeus (whose victory celebrated in jewish festival of hanukkah).

modern interpretations see period civil war between hellenized , orthodox forms of judaism. out of revolt formed independent jewish kingdom known hasmonaean dynasty, lasted 165 bc 63 bc. hasmonean dynasty disintegrated in civil war, coincided civil wars in rome. last hasmonean ruler, antigonus ii mattathias, captured herod , executed in 37 bc. in spite of being revolt against greek overlordship, hasmonean kingdom , herodian kingdom followed gradually became more , more hellenized. 37 bc 4 bc, herod great ruled jewish-roman client king appointed roman senate. considerably enlarged temple (see herod s temple), making 1 of largest religious structures in world. style of enlarged temple , other herodian architecture shows significant hellenistic architectural influence. son, herod archelaus, ruled 4 bc 6 ad when deposed formation of roman judea.