Late modern period Modern history

1 late modern period

1.1 timeline
1.2 industrial revolutions

1.2.1 industrialization
1.2.2 revolution in manufacture , power
1.2.3 notable engineers
1.2.4 social effects , classes

1.2.4.1 mid-19th-century european revolts
1.2.4.2 industrial age reformism


1.2.5 imperial russia


1.3 european dominance , 19th century

1.3.1 imperialism , empires
1.3.2 british victorian era
1.3.3 french governments , conflicts
1.3.4 slavery , abolition
1.3.5 african colonization
1.3.6 meiji japan


1.4 united states

1.4.1 antebellum expansion
1.4.2 civil war , reconstruction
1.4.3 gilded age , legacy


1.5 science , philosophy

1.5.1 notable persons
1.5.2 social darwinism
1.5.3 marxist society


1.6 european decline , 20th century

1.6.1 australian constitution
1.6.2 eastern warlords
1.6.3 world wars era

1.6.3.1 start of 20th century
1.6.3.2 edwardian britain
1.6.3.3 world war i
1.6.3.4 revolutions , war
1.6.3.5 1920s , depression
1.6.3.6 nanjing period
1.6.3.7 league , crises
1.6.3.8 tripartite pact
1.6.3.9 world war ii


1.6.4 post-1945 world

1.6.4.1 american peace
1.6.4.2 cold war era
1.6.4.3 latin america polarization
1.6.4.4 space age

late modern period
timeline







dates approximate range (based upon influence), consult particular article details
         modern age      other





industrial revolutions


a watt steam engine. development of steam engine started industrial revolution in great britain. steam engine created pump water coal mines, enabling them deepened beyond groundwater levels.

the date of industrial revolution not exact. eric hobsbawm held broke out in 1780s , not felt until 1830s or 1840s, while t.s. ashton held occurred between 1760 , 1830 (in effect reigns of george iii, regency, , george iv). great changes of centuries before 19th more connected ideas, religion or military conquest, , technological advance had made small changes in material wealth of ordinary people.

the first industrial revolution merged second industrial revolution around 1850, when technological , economic progress gained momentum development of steam-powered ships , railways, , later in 19th century internal combustion engine , electric power generation. second industrial revolution phase of industrial revolution; labeled separate technical revolution. technological , social point of view there no clean break between two. major innovations during period occurred in chemical, electrical, petroleum, , steel industries. specific advancements included introduction of oil fired steam turbine , internal combustion driven steel ships, development of airplane, practical commercialization of automobile, mass production of consumer goods, perfection of canning, mechanical refrigeration , other food preservation techniques, , invention of telephone.

industrialization

industrialization process of social , economic change whereby human group transformed pre-industrial society industrial one. subdivision of more general modernization process, social change , economic development closely related technological innovation, particularly development of large-scale energy , metallurgy production. extensive organization of economy purpose of manufacturing. industrialization introduces form of philosophical change, people obtain different attitude towards perception of nature.

revolution in manufacture , power

an economy based on manual labour replaced 1 dominated industry , manufacture of machinery. began mechanization of textile industries , development of iron-making techniques, , trade expansion enabled introduction of canals, improved roads, , railways.

the introduction of steam power (fuelled coal) , powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned dramatic increases in production capacity. development of all-metal machine tools in first 2 decades of 19th century facilitated manufacture of more production machines manufacturing in other industries.

the modern petroleum industry started in 1846 discovery of process of refining kerosene coal nova scotian abraham pineo gesner. ignacy Łukasiewicz improved gesner s method develop means of refining kerosene more readily available rock oil ( petr-oleum ) seeps in 1852 , first rock oil mine built in bóbrka, near krosno in galicia in following year. in 1854, benjamin silliman, science professor @ yale university in new haven, first fractionate petroleum distillation. these discoveries rapidly spread around world.

notable engineers

engineering achievements of revolution ranged electrification developments in materials science. advancements made great contribution quality of life. in first revolution, lewis paul original inventor of roller spinning, basis of water frame spinning cotton in cotton mill. matthew boulton , james watt s improvements steam engine fundamental changes brought industrial revolution in both kingdom of great britain , world.

nikola tesla sits in front of spiral coil of high-frequency transformer @ east houston street, new york.

in latter part of second revolution, thomas alva edison developed many devices influenced life around world , credited creation of first industrial research laboratory. in 1882, edison switched on world s first large-scale electrical supply network provided 110 volts direct current fifty-nine customers in lower manhattan. toward end of second industrial revolution, nikola tesla made many contributions in field of electricity , magnetism in late 19th , 20th centuries.

social effects , classes

the industrial revolutions major technological, socioeconomic, , cultural changes in late 18th , 19th centuries began in britain , spread throughout world. effects spread throughout western europe , north america during 19th century, affecting majority of world. impact of change on society enormous , compared neolithic revolution, when mankind developed agriculture , gave nomadic lifestyle.

it has been argued gdp per capita more stable , progressed @ slower rate until industrial revolution , emergence of modern capitalist economy, , has since increased rapidly in capitalist countries.

mid-19th-century european revolts

the european revolutions of 1848, known in countries spring of nations or year of revolution, series of political upheavals throughout european continent. described revolutionary wave, period of unrest began in france , then, further propelled french revolution of 1848, spread rest of europe. although of revolutions put down, there significant amount of violence in many areas, tens of thousands of people tortured , killed. while immediate political effects of revolutions reversed, long-term reverberations of events far-reaching.

industrial age reformism

industrial age reform movements began gradual change of society rather episodes of rapid fundamental changes. reformists ideas grounded in liberalism, although possessed aspects of utopian, socialist or religious concepts. radical movement campaigned electoral reform, reform of poor laws, free trade, educational reform, postal reform, prison reform, , public sanitation.

following enlightenment s ideas, reformers looked scientific revolution , industrial progress solve social problems arose industrial revolution. newton s natural philosophy combined mathematics of axiomatic proof mechanics of physical observation, yielding coherent system of verifiable predictions , replacing previous reliance on revelation , inspired truth. applied public life, approach yielded several successful campaigns changes in social policy.

imperial russia

under peter (the great), russia proclaimed empire in 1721 , became recognized world power. ruling 1682 1725, peter defeated sweden in great northern war, forcing cede west karelia , ingria (two regions lost russia in time of troubles), estland , livland, securing russia s access sea , sea trade. on baltic sea peter founded new capital called saint petersburg, later known russia s window europe. peter great s reforms brought considerable western european cultural influences russia. catherine ii (the great), ruled in 1762–96, extended russian political control on polish-lithuanian commonwealth , incorporated of territories russia during partitions of poland, pushing russian frontier westward central europe. in south, after successful russo-turkish wars against ottoman empire, catherine advanced russia s boundary black sea, defeating crimean khanate.

european dominance , 19th century


world s sovereigns , 1889.

historians define 19th century historical era stretching 1815 (the congress of vienna) 1914 (the outbreak of first world war); alternatively, eric hobsbawm defined long nineteenth century spanning years 1789 1914.

imperialism , empires

in 1800s , 1900s, once great , powerful empires such spain, ottoman turkey, mughal empire, , kingdom of portugal began break apart. spain, @ 1 time unrivaled in europe, had been declining long time when crippled napoleon bonaparte s invasion. sensing time right, spain s vast colonies in south america began series of rebellions ended of spanish territories gaining independence.

the once mighty ottoman empire wracked series of revolutions, resulting ottoman s holding small region surrounded capital, istanbul.

the mughal empire, descended mongol khanate, bested upcoming maratha confederacy. going marathas until british took interest in riches of india , british ended ruling not boundaries of modern india, pakistan, burma, nepal, bangladesh , southern regions of afghanistan.

the king of portugal s vast territory of brazil reformed independent empire of brazil.

with defeat of napoleonic france, britain became undoubtedly powerful country in world, , end of first world war controlled quarter of world s population , third of surface. however, power of british empire did not end on land, since had greatest navy on planet.

electricity, steel, , petroleum enabled germany become great international power raced create empires of own.

the meiji restoration chain of events led enormous changes in japan s political , social structure taking firm hold @ beginning of meiji era coincided opening of japan arrival of black ships of commodore matthew perry , made imperial japan great power.

russia , qing dynasty china failed keep pace other world powers led massive social unrest in both empires. qing dynasty s military power weakened during 19th century, , faced international pressure, massive rebellions , defeats in wars, dynasty declined after mid-19th century.

european powers controlled parts of oceania, french new caledonia 1853 , french polynesia 1889; germans established colonies in new guinea in 1884, , samoa in 1900.

the united states expanded pacific hawaii becoming u.s. territory 1898.

disagreements between us, germany , uk on samoa led tripartite convention of 1899.

british victorian era


national flag of united kingdom.

the victorian era of united kingdom period of queen victoria s reign june 1837 january 1901. long period of prosperity british people, profits gained overseas british empire, industrial improvements @ home, allowed large, educated middle class develop. scholars extend beginning of period—as defined variety of sensibilities , political games have come associated victorians—back 5 years passage of reform act 1832.

the british empire in 1897, marked in traditional colour imperial british dominions on maps

in britain s imperial century , victory on napoleon left britain without serious international rival, other russia in central asia. unchallenged @ sea, britain adopted role of global policeman, state of affairs later known pax britannica, , foreign policy of splendid isolation . alongside formal control exerted on own colonies, britain s dominant position in world trade meant controlled economies of many nominally independent countries, such china, argentina , siam, has been characterized informal empire . of note during time anglo-zulu war, fought in 1879 between british empire , zulu empire.

british imperial strength underpinned steamship , telegraph, new technologies invented in second half of 19th century, allowing control , defend empire. 1902, british empire linked network of telegraph cables, so-called red line. growing until 1922, around 13,000,000 square miles (34,000,000 km) of territory , 458 million people added british empire. british established colonies in australia in 1788, new zealand in 1840 , fiji in 1872, of oceania becoming part of british empire.

french governments , conflicts

the bourbon restoration followed ousting of napoleon of france in 1814. allies restored bourbon dynasty french throne. ensuing period called restoration, following french usage, , characterized sharp conservative reaction , re-establishment of roman catholic church power in french politics. july monarchy period of liberal constitutional monarchy in france under king louis-philippe starting july revolution (or 3 glorious days) of 1830 , ending revolution of 1848. second empire imperial bonapartist regime of napoleon iii 1852 1870, between second republic , third republic, in france.

napoleon iii , bismarck after battle of sedan

the franco-prussian war conflict between france , prussia, while prussia backed north german confederation, of member, , south german states of baden, württemberg , bavaria. complete prussian , german victory brought final unification of germany under king wilhelm of prussia. marked downfall of napoleon iii , end of second french empire, replaced third republic. part of settlement, of territory of alsace-lorraine taken prussia become part of germany, retain until end of world war i.

the french third republic republican government of france between end of second french empire following defeat of louis-napoléon in franco-prussian war in 1870 , vichy regime after invasion of france german third reich in 1940. third republic endured seventy years, making long-lasting regime in france since collapse of ancien régime in french revolution of 1789.

slavery , abolition

slavery reduced around world in 19th century. following successful slave revolt in haiti, britain forced barbary pirates halt practice of kidnapping , enslaving europeans, banned slavery throughout domain, , charged navy ending global slave trade. slavery abolished in russia, america, , brazil.

african colonization

following abolition of slave trade in 1807 , propelled economic exploitation, scramble africa initiated formally @ berlin west africa conference in 1884–1885. berlin conference attempted avoid war among european powers allowing european rival countries carve continent of africa national colonies. africans not consulted.

the major european powers laid claim areas of africa exhibit sphere of influence on area. these claims did not have have substantial land holdings or treaties legitimate. european power demonstrated control on territory accepted mandate rule region national colony. european nation held claim developed , benefited colony’s commercial interests without having fear rival european competition. colonial claim came underlying assumption european power exerted control use mandate offer protection , provide welfare colonial peoples, however, principle remained more theory practice. there many documented instances of material , moral conditions deteriorating native africans in late nineteenth , twentieth centuries under european colonial rule, point colonial experience them has been described hell on earth.

at time of berlin conference, africa contained one-fifth of world’s population living in one-quarter of world’s land area. however, europe s perspective, dividing unknown continent. european countries established few coastal colonies in africa mid-nineteenth century, included cape colony (great britain), angola (portugal), , algeria (france), until late nineteenth century europe largely traded free african states without feeling need territorial possession. until 1880s of africa remained uncharted, western maps period showing blank spaces continent’s interior.

from 1880s 1914, european powers expanded control across african continent, competing each other africa’s land , resources. great britain controlled various colonial holdings in east africa spanned length of african continent egypt in north south africa. french gained major ground in west africa, , portuguese held colonies in southern africa. germany, italy, , spain established small number of colonies @ various points throughout continent, included german east africa (tanganyika) , german southwest africa germany, eritrea , libya italy, , canary islands , rio de oro in northwestern africa spain. finally, king leopold (ruled 1865 1909), there large “piece of great african cake” known congo, which, unfortunately native congolese, became personal fiefdom pleased in central africa. 1914, entire continent under european control. liberia, settled freed american slaves in 1820s, , abyssinia (ethiopia) in eastern africa last remaining independent african states.

meiji japan

around end of 19th century , 20th century, meiji era marked reign of meiji emperor. during time, japan started modernization , rose world power status. era name means enlightened rule . in japan, meiji restoration started in 1860s, marking rapid modernization japanese along european lines. research has focused on issues of discontinuity versus continuity previous tokugawa period. in 1960s younger japanese scholars led irokawa daikichi, reacted against bureaucratic superstate, , began searching historic role of common people . avoided elite, , focused not on political events on social forces , attitudes. rejected both marxism , modernization theory alien , confining. stressed importance of popular energies in development of modern japan. enlarged history using methods of social history. not until beginning of meiji era japanese government began taking modernization seriously. japan expanded military production base opening arsenals in various locations. hyobusho (war office) replaced war department , naval department. samurai class suffered great disappointment following years.

laws instituted required every able-bodied male japanese citizen, regardless of class, serve mandatory term of 3 years first reserves , 2 additional years second reserves. action, deathblow samurai warriors , daimyōs, met resistance both peasant , warrior alike. peasant class interpreted term military service, ketsu-eki ( blood tax ) literally, , attempted avoid service means necessary. japanese government began modelling ground forces after french military. french government contributed training of japanese officers. many employed @ military academy in kyoto, , many more still feverishly translating french field manuals use in japanese ranks.

after death of meiji emperor, taishō emperor took throne, beginning taishō period. key foreign observer of remarkable , rapid changes in japanese society in period ernest mason satow.

representative western scholars include george akita, william beasley, james b. crowley, john w. dower, peter duus, carol gluck, norman herbert, john w. hall, mikiso hane, akira iriye, marius jansen, edwin o. reischauer, george b. sansom, bernard silberman, richard storry, karel van wolfram, , ezra vogel.

united states




see also: 19th-century north american natives

antebellum expansion

american westward expansion idealized in emanuel leutze s famous painting westward course of empire takes way (1861).

the antebellum age period of increasing division in country based on growth of slavery in american south , in western territories of kansas , nebraska lead civil war in 1861. antebellum period considered have begun kansas–nebraska act of 1854, although may have begun 1812. period significant because marked transition of american manufacturing industrial revolution.

manifest destiny belief united states destined expand across north american continent, atlantic seaboard pacific ocean. during time, united states expanded pacific ocean— sea shining sea —largely defining borders of contiguous united states today.

civil war , reconstruction

the american civil war came when 7 (later eleven) southern slave states declared secession u.s. , formed confederate states of america (the confederacy). led jefferson davis, fought against u.s. federal government (the union) under president abraham lincoln, supported free states , 5 border slave states in north.

northern leaders agreed victory require more end of fighting. secession , confederate nationalism had totally repudiated , forms of slavery or quasi-slavery had eliminated. lincoln proved effective in mobilizing support war goals, raising large armies , supplying them, avoiding foreign interference, , making end of slavery war goal. confederacy had larger area defend, , failed keep ports open , rivers clear. north kept pressure south barely feed , clothe soldiers. soldiers, in east under command of general robert e. lee proved highly resourceful until overwhelmed generals ulysses s. grant , william t. sherman in 1864–65, reconstruction era (1863–77) began emancipation proclamation in 1863, , included freedom, full citizenship , vote southern blacks. followed reaction left blacks in second class status legally, politically, socially , economically until 1960s.

the gilded age , legacy

during gilded age, there substantial growth in population in united states , extravagant displays of wealth , excess of america s upper-class during post-civil war , post-reconstruction era, in late 19th century. wealth polarization derived industrial , population expansion. businessmen of second industrial revolution created industrial towns , cities in northeast new factories, , contributed creation of ethnically diverse industrial working class produced wealth owned rising super-rich industrialists , financiers called robber barons . example company of john d. rockefeller, important figure in shaping new oil industry. using highly effective tactics , aggressive practices, later criticized, standard oil absorbed or destroyed of competition.

the creation of modern industrial economy took place. creation of transportation , communication infrastructure, corporation became dominant form of business organization , managerial revolution transformed business operations. in 1890, congress passed sherman antitrust act—the source of american anti-monopoly laws. law forbade every contract, scheme, deal, or conspiracy restrain trade, though phrase restraint of trade remained subjective. beginning of 20th century, per capita income , industrial production in united states exceeded of other country except britain. long hours , hazardous working conditions led many workers attempt form labor unions despite strong opposition industrialists , courts. courts did protect marketplace, declaring standard oil group unreasonable monopoly under sherman antitrust act in 1911. ordered standard break 34 independent companies different boards of directors.

science , philosophy

replacing classical physics in use since end of scientific revolution, modern physics arose in 20th century advent of quantum physics, substituting mathematical studies experimental studies , examining equations build theoretical structure. old quantum theory collection of results predate modern quantum mechanics, never complete or self-consistent. collection of heuristic prescriptions quantum mechanics first corrections classical mechanics. outside realm of quantum physics, various aether theories in classical physics, supposed fifth element such luminiferous aether, nullified michelson-morley experiment—an attempt detect motion of earth through aether. in biology, darwinism gained acceptance, promoting concept of adaptation in theory of natural selection. fields of geology, astronomy , psychology made strides , gained new insights. in medicine, there advances in medical theory , treatments.

xinhai revolution in shanghai; chen qimei organized shanghainese civilians start uprising , successful. picture above nanjing road after uprising, hung 5 races under 1 union flags used revolutionaries.

the assertions of chinese philosophy began integrate concepts of western philosophy, steps toward modernization. time of xinhai revolution in 1911, there many calls, such may fourth movement, abolish old imperial institutions , practices of china. there attempts incorporate democracy, republicanism, , industrialism chinese philosophy, notably sun yat-sen (sūn yì xiān, in 1 mandarin form of name) @ beginning of 20th century. mao zedong (máo zé dōng) added marxist-leninist thought. when communist party of china took on power, previous schools of thought, excepting notably legalism, denounced backward, , later purged during cultural revolution.

starting one-hundred years before 20th century, enlightenment spiritual philosophy challenged in various quarters around 1900s. developed earlier secular traditions, modern humanist ethical philosophies affirmed dignity , worth of people, based on ability determine right , wrong appealing universal human qualities, particularly rationality, without resorting supernatural or alleged divine authority religious texts. liberal humanists such rousseau , kant, universal law of reason guided way toward total emancipation kind of tyranny. these ideas challenged, example young karl marx, criticized project of political emancipation (embodied in form of human rights), asserting symptomatic of dehumanization supposed oppose. friedrich nietzsche, humanism nothing more secular version of theism. in genealogy of morals, argues human rights exist means weak collectively constrain strong. on view, such rights not facilitate emancipation of life, rather deny it. in 20th century, notion human beings rationally autonomous challenged concept humans driven unconscious irrational desires.

notable persons

sigmund freud renowned redefinition of sexual desire primary motivational energy of human life, therapeutic techniques, including use of free association, theory of transference in therapeutic relationship, , interpretation of dreams sources of insight unconscious desires.

albert einstein known theories of special relativity , general relativity. made important contributions statistical mechanics, mathematical treatment of brownian motion, resolution of paradox of specific heats, , connection of fluctuations , dissipation. despite reservations interpretation, einstein made contributions quantum mechanics and, indirectly, quantum field theory, through theoretical studies of photon.

social darwinism

at end of 19th century, social darwinism promoted , included various ideologies based on concept competition among individuals, groups, nations, or ideas natural framework social evolution in human societies. in view, society s advancement dependent on survival of fittest , term in fact coined herbert spencer , referred in gospel of wealth written andrew carnegie.

marxist society

the communist manifesto

karl marx summarized approach history , politics in opening line of first chapter of communist manifesto (1848). wrote:

the history of hitherto existing society history of class struggles.

the manifesto went through number of editions 1872 1890; notable new prefaces written marx , engels 1872 german edition, 1882 russian edition, 1883 german edition, , 1888 english edition. in general, marxism identified 5 (and 1 transitional) successive stages of development in western europe.

european decline , 20th century

major political developments saw former british empire lose of remaining political power on commonwealth countries. trans-siberian railway, crossing asia train, complete 1916. other events include israeli–palestinian conflict, 2 world wars, , cold war.

australian constitution

in 1901, federation of australia process 6 separate british self-governing colonies of new south wales, queensland, south australia, tasmania, victoria , western australia formed 1 nation. kept systems of government had developed separate colonies have federal government responsible matters concerning whole nation. when constitution of australia came force, colonies collectively became states of commonwealth of australia.

eastern warlords

the last days of qing dynasty marked civil unrest , foreign invasions. responding these civil failures , discontent, qing imperial court did attempt reform government in various ways, such decision draft constitution in 1906, establishment of provincial legislatures in 1909, , preparation national parliament in 1910. however, many of these measures opposed conservatives of qing court, , many reformers either imprisoned or executed outright. failures of imperial court enact such reforming measures of political liberalization , modernization caused reformists steer toward road of revolution.

in 1912, republic of china established , sun yat-sen inaugurated in nanjing first provisional president. power in beijing had passed yuan shikai, had effective control of beiyang army, powerful military force in china @ time. prevent civil war , possible foreign intervention undermining infant republic, leaders agreed army s demand china united under beijing government. on march 10, in beijing, shikai sworn in second provisional president of republic of china.

after 20th century revolutions, shifting alliances of china s regional warlords waged war control of beijing government. despite fact various warlords gained control of government in beijing during warlord era, did not constitute new era of control or governance, because other warlords did not acknowledge transitory governments in period , law unto themselves. these military-dominated governments collectively known beiyang government. warlord era ended around 1927.

world wars era

start of 20th century

four years 20th century saw russo-japanese war battle of port arthur establishing empire of japan world power. russians in constant pursuit of warm water port on pacific ocean, navy maritime trade. manchurian campaign of russian empire fought against japanese on manchuria , korea. major theatres of operations southern manchuria, area around liaodong peninsula , mukden, , seas around korea, japan, , yellow sea. resulting campaigns, in fledgling japanese military consistently attained victory on russian forces arrayed against them, unexpected world observers. these victories, time transpired, dramatically transform distribution of power in east asia, resulting in reassessment of japan s recent entry onto world stage. embarrassing string of defeats increased russian popular dissatisfaction inefficient , corrupt tsarist government.

the russian revolution of 1905 wave of mass political unrest through vast areas of russian empire. of directed against government, while undirected. included terrorism, worker strikes, peasant unrests, , military mutinies. led establishment of limited constitutional monarchy, establishment of state duma of russian empire, , multi-party system.

in china, qing dynasty overthrown following xinhai revolution. xinhai revolution began wuchang uprising on october 10, 1911 , ended abdication of emperor puyi on february 12, 1912. primary parties conflict imperial forces of qing dynasty (1644–1911), , revolutionary forces of chinese revolutionary alliance (tongmenghui).

edwardian britain

the edwardian era in united kingdom period spanning reign of king edward vii end of first world war, including years surrounding sinking of rms titanic. in years of period, second boer war in south africa split country anti- , pro-war factions. imperial policies of conservatives proved unpopular , in general election of 1906 liberals won huge landslide. liberal government unable proceed of radical programme without support of house of lords, largely conservative. conflict between 2 houses of parliament on people s budget led reduction in power of peers in 1910. general election in january year returned hung parliament balance of power held labour , irish nationalist members.

world war i

the causes of world war included many factors, including conflicts , antagonisms of 4 decades leading war. triple entente name given loose alignment between united kingdom, france, , russia after signing of anglo-russian entente in 1907. alignment of 3 powers, supplemented various agreements japan, united states, , spain, constituted powerful counterweight triple alliance of germany, austria-hungary, , italy, third having concluded additional secret agreement france nullifying alliance commitments. militarism, alliances, imperialism, , nationalism played major roles in conflict. immediate origins of war lay in decisions taken statesmen , generals during july crisis of 1914, spark (or casus belli) assassination of archduke franz ferdinand of austria.

however, crisis did not exist in void; came after long series of diplomatic clashes between great powers on european , colonial issues in decade prior 1914 had left tensions high. diplomatic clashes can traced changes in balance of power in europe since 1870. example baghdad railway planned connect ottoman empire cities of konya , baghdad line through modern-day turkey, syria , iraq. railway became source of international disputes during years preceding world war i. although has been argued resolved in 1914 before war began, has been argued railroad cause of first world war. fundamentally war sparked tensions on territory in balkans. austria-hungary competed serbia , russia territory , influence in region , pulled rest of great powers conflict through various alliances , treaties. balkan wars 2 wars in south-eastern europe in 1912–1913 in course of balkan league (bulgaria, montenegro, greece, , serbia) first captured ottoman-held remaining part of thessaly, macedonia, epirus, albania , of thrace , fell out on division of spoils, incorporation of romania time.

various periods of world war i; 1914.07.28 (tsar nicholas ii of russia orders partial mobilization against austria-hungary), 1914.08.01 (germany declares war on russia), 1914.08.03 (germany declares war on russia s ally france), 1914.08.04 (britain declares war on germany), 1914.12 (british , german christmas truce), 1915.12 (french , german christmas truce), 1916.12 (battle of magdhaba), 1917.12 (british troops take jerusalem ottoman empire), , 1918.11.11 (world war ends: germany signs armistice agreement allies).

allies , central powers in first world war

         allied powers , areas

         central powers , colonies or occupied territory

     neutral countries

the first world war began in 1914 , lasted final armistice in 1918. allied powers, led british empire, france, russia until march 1918, japan , united states after 1917, defeated central powers, led german empire, austro-hungarian empire , ottoman empire. war caused disintegration of 4 empires—the austro-hungarian, german, ottoman, , russian ones—as radical change in european , west asian maps. allied powers before 1917 referred triple entente, , central powers referred triple alliance.

much of fighting in world war took place along western front, within system of opposing manned trenches , fortifications (separated no man s land ) running north sea border of switzerland. on eastern front, vast eastern plains , limited rail network prevented trench warfare stalemate developing, although scale of conflict large. hostilities occurred on , under sea and—for first time—from air. more 9 million soldiers died on various battlefields, , many more in participating countries home fronts on account of food shortages , genocide committed under cover of various civil wars , internal conflicts. notably, more people died of worldwide influenza outbreak @ end of war , shortly after died in hostilities. unsanitary conditions engendered war, severe overcrowding in barracks, wartime propaganda interfering public health warnings, , migration of many soldiers around world helped outbreak become pandemic.

ultimately, world war created decisive break old world order had emerged after napoleonic wars, modified mid-19th century s nationalistic revolutions. results of world war important factors in development of world war ii approximately 20 years later. more immediate time, partitioning of ottoman empire political event redrew political boundaries of west asia. huge conglomeration of territories , peoples formerly ruled sultan of ottoman empire divided several new nations. partitioning brought creation of modern arab world , republic of turkey. league of nations granted france mandates on syria , lebanon , granted united kingdom mandates on mesopotamia , palestine (which later divided 2 regions: palestine , transjordan). parts of ottoman empire on arabian peninsula became parts of today saudi arabia , yemen.

revolutions , war


national flag of soviet union.

the russian revolution series of revolutions in russia in 1917, destroyed tsarist autocracy , led creation of soviet union. following abdication of nicholas ii of russia, russian provisional government established. in october 1917, red faction revolution occurred in red guard, armed groups of workers , deserting soldiers directed bolshevik party, seized control of saint petersburg (then known petrograd) , began immediate armed takeover of cities , villages throughout former russian empire.

another action in 1917 of note armistice signed between russia , central powers @ brest-litovsk. condition peace, treaty central powers conceded huge portions of former russian empire imperial germany , ottoman empire, upsetting nationalists , conservatives. bolsheviks made peace german empire , central powers, had promised russian people prior revolution. vladimir lenin s decision has been attributed sponsorship foreign office of wilhelm ii, german emperor, offered latter in hopes revolution, russia withdraw world war i. suspicion bolstered german foreign ministry s sponsorship of lenin s return petrograd. western allies expressed dismay @ bolsheviks, upset at:

in addition, there concern, shared many central powers well, socialist revolutionary ideas spread west. hence, many of these countries expressed support whites, including provision of troops , supplies. winston churchill declared bolshevism must strangled in cradle .

the russian civil war multi-party war occurred within former russian empire after russian provisional government collapsed , soviets under domination of bolshevik party assumed power, first in petrograd (st. petersburg) , in other places. in wake of october revolution, old russian imperial army had been demobilized; volunteer-based red guard bolsheviks main military force, augmented armed military component of cheka, bolshevik state security apparatus. there instituted mandatory conscription of rural peasantry red army. opposition of rural russians red army conscription units overcome taking hostages , shooting them when necessary in order force compliance. former tsarist officers utilized military specialists (voenspetsy), taking families hostage in order ensure loyalty. @ start of war, three-fourths of red army officer corps composed of former tsarist officers. end, 83% of red army divisional , corps commanders ex-tsarist soldiers.

the principal fighting occurred between bolshevik red army , forces of white army. many foreign armies warred against red army, notably allied forces, yet many volunteer foreigners fought in both sides of russian civil war. other nationalist , regional political groups participated in war, including ukrainian nationalist green army, ukrainian anarchist black army , black guards, , warlords such ungern von sternberg. intense fighting took place 1918 1920. major military operations ended on 25 october 1922 when red army occupied vladivostok, held provisional priamur government. last enclave of white forces ayano-maysky district on pacific coast. majority of fighting ended in 1920 defeat of general pyotr wrangel in crimea, notable resistance in areas continued until 1923 (e.g., kronstadt uprising, tambov rebellion, basmachi revolt, , final resistance of white movement in far east).

in 1917, china declared war on germany in hope of recovering lost province, under japanese control. new culture movement occupied period 1917 1923. chinese representatives refused sign treaty of versailles, due intense pressure student protesters , public opinion alike.

the may fourth movement helped rekindle then-fading cause of republican revolution. in 1917 sun yat-sen had become commander-in-chief of rival military government in guangzhou in collaboration southern warlords. sun s efforts obtain aid western democracies ignored, however, , in 1920 turned soviet union, had achieved own revolution. soviets sought befriend chinese revolutionists offering scathing attacks on western imperialism. political expediency, soviet leadership initiated dual policy of support both sun , newly established chinese communist party (ccp).

the flag of kuomintang, 1 canton of flag of republic of china.

the policy of working kuomintang , chiang kai-shek had been recommended dutch communist henk sneevliet, chosen in 1923 comintern representative in china due revolutionary experience in dutch indies, had major role in founding partai komunis indonesia (pki) – , felt chinese party small , weak undertake major effort on own (see henk sneevliet s work comintern).

in 1927, kuomintang-ccp rivalry led split in revolutionary ranks. ccp , left wing of kuomintang had decided move seat of nationalist government guangzhou wuhan. chiang kai-shek, northern expedition proving successful, set forces destroying shanghai ccp apparatus , established anti-communist government @ nanjing in april 1927.

the 1920s , depression

the interwar period period between end of first world war , beginning of second world war. period marked turmoil in of world, europe struggled recover devastation of first world war.

in north america, first half of period, people experienced considerable prosperity in roaring twenties. social , societal upheaval known roaring twenties began in north america , spread europe in aftermath of world war i. roaring twenties, called jazz age , saw exposition of social, artistic, , cultural dynamism. normalcy returned politics, jazz music blossomed, flapper redefined modern womanhood, art deco peaked. spirit of roaring twenties marked general feeling of discontinuity associated modernity, break traditions. seemed feasible through modern technology. new technologies, automobiles, movies , radio proliferated modernity large part of population. 1920s saw general favor of practicality, in architecture in daily life. 1920s further distinguished several inventions , discoveries, extensive industrial growth , rise in consumer demand , aspirations, , significant changes in lifestyle.

europe between 1920 , 1938.

europe spent these years rebuilding , coming terms vast human cost of conflict. economy of united states became increasingly intertwined of europe. in germany, weimar republic gave way episodes of political , economic turmoil, culminated german hyperinflation of 1923 , failed beer hall putsch of same year. when germany no longer afford war payments, wall street invested heavily in european debts keep european economy afloat large consumer market american mass-produced goods. middle of decade, economic development soared in europe, , roaring twenties broke out in germany, britain , france, second half of decade becoming known golden twenties . in france , francophone canada, called années folles ( crazy years ).

worldwide prosperity changed dramatically onset of great depression in 1929. wall street crash of 1929 served punctuate end of previous era, great depression set in. great depression worldwide economic downturn starting in places in 1929 , ending @ different times in 1930s or 1940s different countries. largest , important economic depression in 20th century, , used in 21st century example of how far world s economy can fall.

the depression had devastating effects in virtually every country, rich or poor. international trade plunged half two-thirds, did personal income, tax revenue, prices , profits. cities around world hit hard, dependent on heavy industry. construction virtually halted in many countries. farming , rural areas suffered crop prices fell 60 percent. facing plummeting demand few alternate sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries suffered most.

the great depression ended @ different times in different countries effect lasting next era. america s great depression ended in 1941 america s entry world war ii. majority of countries set relief programs, , underwent sort of political upheaval, pushing them left or right. in world states, desperate citizens turned toward nationalist demagogues—the infamous being adolf hitler—setting stage next era of war. convulsion brought on worldwide depression resulted in rise of nazism. in asia, japan became ever more assertive power, regards china.

nanjing period


with sino-german cooperation until 1941, chinese industry , military improved prior war against japan.

the nanjing decade of 1928–37 1 of consolidation , accomplishment under leadership of nationalists, mixed positive record in economy, social progress, development of democracy, , cultural creativity. of harsh aspects of foreign concessions , privileges in china moderated through diplomacy.

the league , crises

the interwar period marked radical change in international order, away balance of power had dominated pre–world war europe. 1 main institution meant bring stability league of nations, created after first world war intention of maintaining world security , peace , encouraging economic growth between member countries. league undermined bellicosity of nazi germany, imperial japan, soviet union, , mussolini s italy, , non-participation of united states, leading many question effectiveness , legitimacy.

a series of international crises strained league limits, earliest being invasion of manchuria japan , abyssinian crisis of 1935/36 in italy invaded abyssinia, 1 of free african nations @ time. league tried enforce economic sanctions upon italy, no avail. incident highlighted french , british weakness, exemplified reluctance alienate italy , lose ally. limited actions taken western powers pushed mussolini s italy towards alliance hitler s germany anyway. abyssinian war showed hitler how weak league , encouraged remilitarization of rhineland in flagrant disregard of treaty of versailles. first in series of provocative acts culminating in invasion of poland in september 1939 , beginning of second world war.

few chinese had illusions japanese designs on china. hungry raw materials , pressed growing population, japan initiated seizure of manchuria in september 1931 , established ex-qing emperor puyi head of puppet state of manchukuo in 1932. during sino-japanese war (1937–1945), loss of manchuria, , vast potential industrial development , war industries, blow kuomintang economy. league of nations, established @ end of world war i, unable act in face of japanese defiance. after 1940, conflicts between kuomintang , communists became more frequent in areas not under japanese control. communists expanded influence wherever opportunities presented through mass organizations, administrative reforms, , land- , tax-reform measures favoring peasants—while kuomintang attempted neutralize spread of communist influence.

tripartite pact

the second sino-japanese war had seen tensions rise between imperial japan , united states; events such panay incident , nanking massacre turned american public opinion against japan. occupation of french indochina in years of 1940–41, , continuing war in china, united states placed embargoes on japan of strategic materials such scrap metal , oil, vitally needed war effort. japanese faced option of either withdrawing china , losing face or seizing , securing new sources of raw materials in resource-rich, european-controlled colonies of south east asia—specifically british malaya , dutch east indies (modern-day indonesia). in 1940, imperial japan signed tripartite pact nazi germany , fascist italy.

world war ii


national flag of third reich (nazi germany).

the second world war global military conflict took place in 1939–1945. largest , deadliest war in history, culminating in holocaust , ending dropping of atom bomb.

even though japan had been fighting in china since 1937, conventional view war began on september 1, 1939, when nazi germany invaded poland, drang nach osten. within 2 days united kingdom , france declared war on germany, though fighting confined poland. pursuant then-secret provision of non-aggression molotov-ribbentrop pact, soviet union joined germany on september 17, 1939, conquer poland , divide eastern europe.

the allies made of poland, united kingdom, france, australia, canada, new zealand, south africa, british commonwealth countries controlled directly uk, such indian empire. of these countries declared war on germany in september 1939.

following lull in fighting, known phoney war , germany invaded western europe in may 1940. 6 weeks later, france, in mean time attacked italy well, surrendered germany, tried unsuccessfully conquer britain. on september 27, germany, italy, , japan signed mutual defense agreement, tripartite pact, , known axis powers.

ensign of imperial japanese navy.

nine months later, on june 22, 1941, germany launched massive invasion of soviet union, promptly joined allies. germany engaged in fighting war on 2 fronts. proved mistake germany – germany had not carried out invasion of britain , war turned against axis.

on december 7, 1941, japan attacked united states @ pearl harbor, bringing war on allied side. china joined allies, did of rest of world. china in turmoil @ time, , attacked japanese armies through guerilla-type warfare. beginning of 1942, major combatants aligned follows: british commonwealth, united states, , soviet union fighting germany , italy; , british commonwealth, china, , united states fighting japan. united kingdom, united states, soviet union , china referred trusteeship of powerful during world war ii , recognized allied big 4 in declaration united nations these 4 countries considered 4 policemen or 4 sheriffs of allies power , primary victors of world war ii. through august 1945, battles raged across of europe, in north atlantic ocean, across north africa, throughout southeast asia, throughout china, across pacific ocean , in air on japan.

italy surrendered in september 1943 , split northern germany-occupied puppet state , allies-friendly state in south; germany surrendered in may 1945. following atomic bombings of hiroshima , nagasaki, japan surrendered, marking end of war on september 2, 1945.

it possible around 62 million people died in war; estimates vary greatly. 60% of casualties civilians, died result of disease, starvation, genocide (in particular, holocaust), , aerial bombing. former soviet union , china suffered casualties. estimates place deaths in soviet union @ around 23 million, while china suffered 10 million. no country lost greater portion of population poland: approximately 5.6 million, or 16%, of pre-war population of 34.8 million died.

flag of italian empire.

the holocaust (which means burnt whole ) deliberate , systematic murder of millions of jews , other unwanted during world war ii nazi regime in germany. several differing views exist regarding whether intended occur war s beginning, or if plans came later. regardless, persecution of jews extended before war started, such in kristallnacht (night of broken glass). nazis used propaganda great effect stir anti-semitic feelings within ordinary germans.

after world war ii, europe informally split western , soviet spheres of influence. western europe later aligned north atlantic treaty organization (nato) , eastern europe warsaw pact. there shift in power western europe , british empire 2 new superpowers, united states , soviet union. these 2 rivals later face off in cold war. in asia, defeat of japan led democratization. china s civil war continued through , after war, resulting in establishment of people s republic of china. former colonies of european powers began road independence.

post-1945 world

the blue marble, photograph of earth seen apollo 17. second half of 20th century saw increase of interest in both space exploration , environmental movement.

the mid-20th century distinguished of human history in significant changes directly or indirectly economic , technological in nature. economic development force behind vast changes in everyday life, degree unprecedented in human history.

over course of 20th century, world s per-capita gross domestic product grew factor of five, more earlier centuries combined (including 19th industrial revolution). many economists make case understates magnitude of growth, many of goods , services consumed @ end of 20th century, such improved medicine (causing world life expectancy increase more 2 decades) , communications technologies, not available @ price @ beginning. however, gulf between world s rich , poor grew wider, , majority of global population remained in poor side of divide.

still, advancing technology , medicine has had great impact in global south. large-scale industry , more centralized media made brutal dictatorships possible on unprecedented scale in middle of century, leading wars unprecedented. however, increased communications contributed democratization. technological developments included development of airplanes , space exploration, nuclear technology, advancement in genetics, , dawning of information age.

american peace


national flag of united states.

pax americana appellation applied historical concept of relative liberal peace in western world, resulting preponderance of power enjoyed united states of america starting around start of 20th century. although term finds primary utility in latter half of 20th century, has been used in various places , eras. modern connotations concern peace established after end of world war ii in 1945.

cold war era

the cold war began in mid-1940s , lasted 1990s. throughout period, conflict expressed through military coalitions, espionage, weapons development, invasions, propaganda, , competitive technological development. conflict included costly defense spending, massive conventional , nuclear arms race, , numerous proxy wars; 2 superpowers never fought 1 directly.

the soviet union created eastern bloc of countries occupied, annexing soviet socialist republics , maintaining others satellite states later form warsaw pact. united states , various western european countries began policy of containment of communism , forged myriad alliances end, including nato. several of these western countries coordinated efforts regarding rebuilding of western europe, including western germany, soviets opposed. in other regions of world, such latin america , southeast asia, soviet union fostered communist revolutionary movements, united states , many of allies opposed and, in cases, attempted roll . many countries prompted align nations later form either nato or warsaw pact, though other movements emerge.

the cold war saw periods of both heightened tension , relative calm. international crises arose, such berlin blockade (1948–1949), korean war (1950–1953), berlin crisis of 1961, vietnam war (1955–1975), cuban missile crisis (1962), soviet war in afghanistan (1979–1989) , nato exercises in november 1983. there periods of reduced tension both sides sought détente. direct military attacks on adversaries deterred potential mutual assured destruction using deliverable nuclear weapons.

the cold war drew close in late 1980s , 1990s. united states under president ronald reagan increased diplomatic, military, , economic pressure on soviet union, suffering severe economic stagnation. in second half of 1980s, newly appointed soviet leader mikhail gorbachev introduced perestroika , glasnost reforms. soviet union collapsed in 1991, leaving united states dominant military power, though russia retained of massive soviet nuclear arsenal.

latin america polarization

in latin america in 1970s, leftists acquired significant political influence prompted right-wing, ecclesiastical authorities , large portion of individual country s upper class support coups d état avoid perceived communist threat. further fueled cuban , united states intervention led political polarization. south american countries in periods ruled military dictatorships supported united states of america. in 1970s, regimes of southern cone collaborated in operation condor killing many leftist dissidents, including urban guerrillas. however, 1990s countries had restored democracies.

space age

this high-resolution image of hubble ultra deep field includes galaxies of various ages, sizes, shapes, , colors. smallest, reddest galaxies, of distant galaxies have been imaged optical telescope

the space age period encompassing activities related space race, space exploration, space technology, , cultural developments influenced these events. space age began development of several technologies culminated launch of sputnik 1 soviet union in october 1957. world s first artificial satellite, orbiting earth in 98.1 minutes , weighing in @ 83 kg. launch of sputnik 1 ushered new era of political, scientific , technological achievements became known space age. space age characterized rapid development of new technology in close race between united states , soviet union. space age brought first human spaceflight during vostok programme , reached peak apollo program captured imagination of of world s population. landing of apollo 11 event watched on 500 million people around world , recognized 1 of defining moments of 20th century. since , end of space race due dissolution of soviet union, public attention has largely moved other areas.