Europe Modern history

1 europe

1.1 tsardom of russia
1.2 reason , enlightenment
1.3 scientific revolution
1.4 french revolutions

1.4.1 national , legislative assembly
1.4.2 directory , napoleonic era


1.5 italian unification
1.6 end of modern period

europe

many major events caused europe change around start of 16th century, starting fall of constantinople in 1453, fall of muslim spain , discovery of americas in 1492, , martin luther s protestant reformation in 1517. in england modern period dated start of tudor period victory of henry vii on richard iii @ battle of bosworth in 1485. modern european history seen span start of 15th century, through age of reason , age of enlightenment in 17th , 18th centuries, until beginning of industrial revolution in late 18th century.

tsardom of russia


imperial russian cossacks (left) in paris in 1814

russia experienced territorial growth through 17th century, age of cossacks. cossacks warriors organized military communities, resembling pirates , pioneers of new world. native land of cossacks defined line of russian/ruthenian town-fortresses located on border steppe , stretching middle volga ryazan , tula, breaking abruptly south , extending dnieper via pereyaslavl. area settled population of free people practicing various trades , crafts.

in 1648, peasants of ukraine joined zaporozhian cossacks in rebellion against poland-lithuania during khmelnytsky uprising, because of social , religious oppression suffered under polish rule. in 1654 ukrainian leader, bohdan khmelnytsky, offered place ukraine under protection of russian tsar, aleksey i. aleksey s acceptance of offer led russo-polish war (1654–1667). finally, ukraine split along river dnieper, leaving western part (or right-bank ukraine) under polish rule , eastern part (left-bank ukraine , kiev) under russian. later, in 1670–71 don cossacks led stenka razin initiated major uprising in volga region, tsar s troops successful in defeating rebels. in east, rapid russian exploration , colonisation of huge territories of siberia led cossacks hunting valuable furs , ivory. russian explorers pushed eastward along siberian river routes, , mid-17th century there russian settlements in eastern siberia, on chukchi peninsula, along amur river, , on pacific coast. in 1648 bering strait between asia , north america passed first time fedot popov , semyon dezhnyov.

reason , enlightenment

traditionally, european intellectual transformation of , after renaissance bridged middle ages , modern era. age of reason in western world regarded being start of modern philosophy, , departure medieval approach, scholasticism. 17th-century philosophy called age of rationalism , considered succeed renaissance philosophy , precede age of enlightenment, consider earliest part of enlightenment era in philosophy, extending era 2 centuries. 18th century saw beginning of secularization in europe, rising notability in wake of french revolution.

the age of enlightenment time in western philosophy , cultural life centered upon 18th century in reason advocated primary source , legitimacy authority. enlightenment gained momentum more or less simultaneously in many parts of europe , america. developing during enlightenment era, renaissance humanism intellectual movement spread across europe. basic training of humanist speak , write (typically, in form of letter). term umanista comes latter part of 15th century. people associated studia humanitatis, novel curriculum competing quadrivium , scholastic logic.

renaissance humanism took close study of latin , greek classical texts, , antagonistic values of scholasticism emphasis on accumulated commentaries; , humanists involved in sciences, philosophies, arts , poetry of classical antiquity. self-consciously imitated classical latin , deprecated use of medieval latin. analogy perceived decline of latin, applied principle of ad fontes, or sources, across broad areas of learning.

the quarrel of ancients , moderns literary , artistic quarrel heated in 1690s , shook académie française. opposing 2 sides were, ancients (anciens) constrain choice of subjects drawn literature of antiquity , moderns (modernes), supported merits of authors of century of louis xiv. fontenelle followed digression sur les anciens et les modernes (1688), in took modern side, pressing argument modern scholarship allowed modern man surpass ancients in knowledge.

scientific revolution

the scientific revolution period when european ideas in classical physics, astronomy, biology, human anatomy, chemistry, , other classical sciences rejected , led doctrines supplanting had prevailed ancient greece middle ages lead transition modern science. period saw fundamental transformation in scientific ideas across physics, astronomy, , biology, in institutions supporting scientific investigation, , in more held picture of universe. individuals started question manners of things , questioning led scientific revolution, in turn formed foundations of contemporary sciences , establishment of several modern scientific fields.

the french revolutions

toward middle , latter stages of age of revolution, french political , social revolutions , radical change saw french governmental structure, absolute monarchy feudal privileges aristocracy , catholic clergy transform, changing forms based on enlightenment principles of citizenship , inalienable rights. first revolution led government national assembly, second legislative assembly, , third directory.

the changes accompanied violent turmoil included trial , execution of king, vast bloodshed , repression during reign of terror, , warfare involving every other major european power. subsequent events can traced revolution include napoleonic wars, 2 separate restorations of monarchy, , 2 additional revolutions modern france took shape. in following century, france governed @ 1 point or republic, constitutional monarchy, , 2 different empires.

national , legislative assembly

during french revolution, national assembly, existed june 17 july 9 of 1789, transitional body between estates-general , national constituent assembly.

the legislative assembly legislature of france october 1, 1791 september 1792. provided focus of political debate , revolutionary law-making between periods of national constituent assembly , of national convention.

the directory , napoleonic era

the executive directory body of 5 directors held executive power in france following convention , preceding consulate. period of regime (2 november 1795 until 10 november 1799), commonly known directory (or directoire) era, constitutes second last stage of french revolution. napoleon, before seizing title of emperor, elected first consul of consulate of france.

the campaigns of french emperor , general napoleon bonaparte characterized napoleonic era. born on corsica french invaded, , dying suspiciously on tiny british island of st. helena, brilliant commander, controlled french empire that, @ height, ruled large portion of europe directly paris, while many of friends , family ruled countries such spain, poland, several parts of italy , many other kingdoms republics , dependencies. napoleonic era changed face of europe forever, , old empires , kingdoms fell apart result of mighty , glorious surge of republicanism.

italian unification

italian unification political , social movement annexed different states of italian peninsula single state of italy in 19th century. there lack of consensus on exact dates beginning , end of period, many scholars agree process began end of napoleonic rule , congress of vienna in 1815, , approximately ended franco-prussian war in 1871, though last città irredente did not join kingdom of italy until after world war i.

end of modern period

toward end of modern period, europe dominated evolving system of mercantile capitalism in trade , new economy. european states , politics had characteristic of absolutism. french power , english revolutions dominated political scene. there evolved international balance of power held @ bay great conflagration until years later.

the end date of modern period associated industrial revolution, began in britain in 1750. significant date 1789, beginning of french revolution, drastically transformed state of european politics , ushered in prince edward era , modern europe.