The Agreement in practice Sykes–Picot Agreement

1 agreement in practice

1.1 syria, palestine , arabs

1.1.1 asquith government (1916)
1.1.2 lloyd george government (1917 onwards)
1.1.3 after public disclosure (1917–18)
1.1.4 paris peace conference (1919–20)


1.2 iraq , persian gulf
1.3 kurds

the agreement in practice
syria, palestine , arabs
asquith government (1916)

while sykes , picot in negotiations, discussions proceeding in parallel between cairo , hussein; hussein s reply of 1 january mcmahon s 14 december 1915 received @ foreign office, mcmahon’s cover stating:

satisfactory may note general acceptance time being of proposed relations of france arabia, reference future of relations adumbrates source of trouble wise not ignore. have on more 1 occasion brought notice of majesty s government deep antipathy arabs regard prospect of french administration of portion of arab territory. in lies considerable danger our future relations france, because difficult , impossible though may convince france of mistake, if not endeavour warning of real state of arab feeling, may hereafter accused of instigating or encouraging opposition french, arabs threaten , assuredly give.

after discussions, grey instructed french informed of situation although cambon did not take matter seriously.

hussein s letter of 18 february 1916 appealed mcmahon £50,000 in gold plus weapons, ammunition , food claiming feisal awaiting arrival of not less 100,000 people planned revolt , mcmahon s reply of 10 march 1916 confirmed british agreement requests , concluded ten letters of correspondence.

in april , may, there discussions initiated sykes merits of meeting include picot , arabs mesh desiderata of both sides. @ same time, logistics in relation promised revolt being dealt , there rising level of impatience action taken hussein. finally, @ end of april, mcmahon advised of terms of sykes-picot , , grey agreed these not disclosed arabs.

then arab revolt officially initiated hussein @ mecca on 10 june 1916 although sons ‘ali , faisal had initiated operations @ medina starting on 5 june. timing had been brought forward hussein and, according cairo, neither nor @ ready in june, 1916, , greatest of difficulty minimum of sufficient assistance in material scraped ensure initial success.

colonel edouard brémond dispatched arabia in september 1916 head of french military mission arabs. according cairo, bremond intent on containing revolt arabs might not in way threaten french interests in syria. these concerns not taken in london, british-french cooperation thought paramount , cairo made aware of that.(wingate informed in late november seem desirable impress upon subordinates need loyal cooperation french whom majesty’s government not suspect of ulterior designs in hijaz .)

as 1916 drew close, asquith government had been under increasing pressure , criticism due conduct of war, gave way on 6 december david lloyd george had been critical of war effort , had succeeded kitchener secretary of state war after untimely death in june. lloyd george had wanted make destruction of ottoman empire major british war aim, , 2 days after taking office told robertson wanted major victory, preferably capture of jerusalem, impress british public opinion. eef were, @ time, in defensive mode @ line on eastern edge of sinai @ el arish , 15 miles borders of ottoman palestine. lloyd george @ once consulted war cabinet further campaign palestine when el arish had been secured . pressure lloyd george (over reservations of chief of general staff) resulted in capture of rafa , arrival of british forces @ borders of ottoman empire.

lloyd george government (1917 onwards)

lloyd george set new small war cabinet comprising lords curzon , milner, bonar law, arthur henderson , himself; hankey became secretary sykes, ormsby-gore , amery assistants. although balfour replaced grey foreign secretary, exclusion war cabinet , activist stance of members weakened influence on foreign policy.

the french chose picot french high commissioner occupied territory of syria , palestine. british appointed sykes chief political officer egyptian expeditionary force. on 3 april 1917, sykes met lloyd george, curzon , hankey receive instructions in regard, namely keep french onside while pressing british palestine. first sykes in may , picot , sykes visited hejaz later in may discuss agreement faisal , hussein. hussein persuaded agree formula effect french pursue same policy in syria british in baghdad; since hussein believed baghdad part of arab state, had satisfied him. later reports participants expressed doubts precise nature of discussions , degree hussein had been informed terms of sykes–picot.

italy s participation in war, governed treaty of london, led agreement of saint-jean-de-maurienne in april 1917; @ conference, lloyd george had raised question of british protectorate of palestine , idea had been coldly received french , italians. war cabinet, reviewing conference on 25 april, inclined view sooner or later sykes–picot agreement might have reconsidered ... no action should taken @ present in matter .

in between meetings hussein, sykes had informed london sooner french military mission removed hedjaz better , lord bertie instructed request same french on grounds mission hostile arab cause , cannot prejudice allied relations , policy in hedjaz , may affect whole future of french relations arabs . after french response this, on 31 may 1917, william ormsby-gore wrote:

the british government, in authorising letters despatched king hussein [sharif of mecca] before outbreak of revolt sir henry mcmahon, seem raise doubt whether our pledges king hussein head of arab nation consistent french intentions make not syria upper mesopotamia tunis. if our support of king hussein , other arabian leaders of less distinguished origin , prestige means means prepared recognize full sovereign independence of arabs of arabia , syria. seem time acquaint french government our detailed pledges king hussein, , make clear latter whether or else ruler of damascus, 1 possible capital arab state, command obedience of other arabian emirs.

in further sign of british discontent sykes-picot, in august, sykes penned memorandum on asia minor agreement tantamount advocating renegotiation else made clear french make – if cannot make military effort compatible policy should modify policy .

after many discussions, sykes directed conclude picot agreement or supplement sykes-picot ( projet d arrangement ) covering future status of hejaz , arabia , achieved end of september. however, end of year, agreement had yet ratified french government.

the balfour declaration along potential claim in palestine in meantime issued on 2 november , british entered jerusalem on december 9, allenby on foot 2 days later accompanied representatives of french , italian detachments.

after public disclosure (1917–18)

excerpt manchester guardian, monday, november 26, 1917, first english-language reference became known sykes picot agreement.

russian claims in ottoman empire denied following bolshevik revolution , bolsheviks released copy of sykes–picot agreement (as other treaties). revealed full texts in izvestia , pravda on 23 november 1917; subsequently, manchester guardian printed texts on november 26, 1917. caused great embarrassment between allies , growing distrust between them , arabs. zionists had confirmed details of agreement british government, earlier in april. wilson had rejected secret agreements made between allies , promoted open diplomacy ideas self-determination. on 22 november 1917, leon trotsky, addressed note ambassadors @ petrograd containing proposals truce , democratic peace without annexation , without indemnities, based on principle of independence of nations, , of right determine nature of own development . peace negotiations quadruple alliance – germany, austria–hungary, bulgaria , turkey – started @ brest–litovsk 1 month later. on behalf of quadruple alliance, count czernin, replied on 25 december question of state allegiance of national groups possess no state independence should solved every state peoples independently in constitutional manner , , right of minorities forms essential component part of constitutional right of peoples self- determination .

in turn, lloyd george delivered speech on war aims on 5 january, including references right of self-determination , consent of governed secret treaties , changed circumstances regarding them. 3 days later, wilson weighed in fourteen points, twelfth being turkish portions of present ottoman empire should assured secure sovereignty, other nationalities under turkish rule should assured undoubted security of life , absolutely unmolested opportunity of autonomous development .

on december 23, 1917, sykes (who had been sent france in mid-december see happening projet d arrangement) , representative of french ministry of foreign affairs had delivered public addresses central syrian congress in paris on non-turkish elements of ottoman empire, including liberated jerusalem. sykes had stated accomplished fact of independence of hejaz rendered impossible effective , real autonomy should refused syria. however, minutes record syrian arabs in egypt not happy developments , absent clearer, less ambiguous statement in regard future of syria , mesopotamia allies king of hedjaz lose arab support.

sykes author of hogarth message secret january 1918 message hussein following request explanation of balfour declaration , bassett letter letter (also secret) dated 8 february 1918 british government hussein following request explanation of sykes–picot agreement.

the failure of projet d arrangement reflected poorly on sykes , following on doubts explanations of sykes-picot hussein previous year, weakened credibility on middle eastern affairs throughout 1918. still (at own request, acting adviser on arabian , palestine affairs @ foreign office) continued criticism of sykes-picot, minuting on 16 february anglo–french agreement of 1916 in regard asia minor should come reconsideration , on 3 march, writing clayton, stipulations in regard red , blue areas can regarded quite contrary spirit of every ministerial speech has been made last 3 months .

on 28 march 1918 first meeting of newly formed eastern committee held, chaired curzon.

in may, clayton told balfour picot had, in response suggestion agreement moot, allowed considerable revision required in view of changes had taken place in situation since agreement drawn , nevertheless considered agreement holds, @ rate principle .

the british issued declaration 7 on june 16 first british pronouncement arabs advancing principle of national self-determination.

on 30 september 1918, supporters of arab revolt in damascus declared government loyal sharif of mecca. had been declared king of arabs handful of religious leaders , other notables in mecca.

the anglo-french declaration of november 1918 pledged great britain , france assist in establishment of indigenous governments , administrations in syria , mesopotamia setting of national governments , administrations deriving authority free exercise of initiative , choice of indigenous populations . french had reluctantly agreed issue declaration @ insistence of british. minutes of british war cabinet meeting reveal british had cited laws of conquest , military occupation avoid sharing administration french under civilian regime. british stressed terms of anglo–french declaration had superseded sykes–picot agreement in order justify fresh negotiations on allocation of territories of syria, mesopotamia, , palestine.

george curzon said great powers still committed règlement organique agreement, concerned governance , non-intervention in affairs of maronite, orthodox christian, druze, , muslim communities, regarding beirut vilayet of june 1861 , september 1864, , added rights granted france in today modern syria , parts of turkey under sykes–picot incompatible agreement.

at french embassy in london on sunday december 1, david lloyd george , clemenceau had private meeting latter surrendered french rights mosul , palestine had been given sykes–picot agreement. there conflicting views whether or not france received in exchange. although lloyd george , others have suggested nothing given in return, according rutledge , others, lloyd george promised @ least 1 or of, support french claims on ruhr, when oil production in mosul began, france receive share , sykes–picot obligation maintained regards syria.

paris peace conference (1919–20)

zones of french (blue), british (red) , russian (green) influence , control established sykes–picot agreement. @ downing street meeting of 16 december 1915 sykes had declared should draw line e in acre last k in kirkuk.



sykes-picot division



david lloyd george in 1915



emir faisal in 1920



georges clemenceau

the eastern committee met 9 times in november , december draft set of resolutions on british policy benefit of negotiators. on 21 october, war cabinet asked smuts prepare peace brief in summary form , asked erle richards carry out task resulting in p-memo use peace conference delegates. conclusions of eastern committee @ page 4 of p-memo included objectives cancellation of sykes–picot , supporting arabs in claim state capital @ damascus (in line mcmahon-hussein correspondence).

at peace conference, officially opened on 18 january, big 4 (initially, council of ten comprising 2 delegates each britain, france, united states, italy , japan) agreed, on 30 january, outlines of mandate system (including 3 levels of mandate) later become article 22 of league covenant. big 4 later decide communities, under conditions , mandatory.

minutes taken during meeting of big 4 held in paris on march 20, 1919 , attended woodrow wilson, georges clemenceau, vittorio emanuele orlando lloyd george , lord balfour, explained british , french points of view concerning agreement. first topic brought during discussion of syria , turkey, , formed focus of discussions thereafter.

the anglo-french declaration read minutes, pichon commenting showed disinterested position of both governments in regard arabs , lloyd george more important old agreements . pichon went on mention scheme of agreement of 15 february based on private agreement reached between clemenceau , lloyd george previous december. (according lieshout, before faisal made presentation conference on 6th, clemenceau handed lloyd george proposal appears cover same subject matter; lieshout having accessed related british materials dated 6th whereas date in minutes unsourced.)

in subsequent discussions, france staked claim syria (and mandate) while british sought carve out arab areas of zones , b arguing france had implicitly accepted such arrangement though british had entered arrangement arabs.

wilson intervened , stressed principle of consent of governed whether syria or mesopotamia, thought issues involved peace of world , not matter between france , britain. suggested inter-allied commission formed , sent out find out wishes of local inhabitants in region. discussion concluded wilson agreeing draft terms of teference commission.

21 april, faisal left east. before left, on 17 april clemenceau sent draft letter, in french government declared recognized right of syria independence in form of federation of autonomous governments in agreement traditions , wishes of populations , , claimed faisal had recognized france power qualified render syria assistance of various advisors necessary introduce order , realise progress demanded syrian populations , on 20 april, faisal assured clemenceau had been impressed disinterested friendliness of statements me while in paris, , must thank having been first suggest dispatch of inter-allied commission, leave shortly east ascertain wishes of local peoples future organisation of country. sure people of syria know how show gratitude.

meanwhile, of late may, stand off between french , british disposition of forces continued, french continued press replacement of british french troops in syria amid arguments precise geographical limits of same , in general relationship suffered; after meeting on 21st, lloyd george had written clemenceau , cancelled long–bérenger oil agreement(a revised version of had been agreed @ end of april)claiming have known nothing , not wanting become issue while clemenceau claimed had not been subject of argument.

in june 1919, american king–crane commission arrived in syria inquire local public opinion future of country. after many vicissitudes, mired in confusion , intrigue , lloyd george had second thoughts... , french , british had declined participate.

the syrian national congress had been convened in may 1919 consider future of greater syria , present arab views contained in july 2 resolution king-crane commission.

the peace treaty germany signed on 28 june , departure of wilson , lloyd george paris, result turkey/syria question placed on hold.

on 15 september, british handed out aide memoire (which had been discussed privately 2 days before between lloyd george , clemenceau ) whereby british withdraw troops palestine , mesopotamia , hand on damascus, homs, hama , aleppo faisal s forces. while accepting withdrawal, clemenceau continued insist on sykes–picot agreement being basis discussions.

on 18 september, faisal arrived in london , next day , on 23rd had lengthy meetings lloyd george explained aide memoire , british position. lloyd george explained in position of man had inherited 2 sets of engagements, king hussein , french , faisal noting arrangement seemed based on 1916 agreement between british , french . clemenceau, replying in respect of aide memoire, refused move on syria , said matter should left french handle directly faisal.

faisal arrived paris on 20 october , on 6 january 1920 faisal accepted french mandate whole of syria , while france in return consented formation of arab state included damascus, homs, hama , aleppo, , administered emir assistance of french advisers (acknowledged right of syrians unite govern independent nation .). in meantime, british forces withdrew damascus on 26 november.

fiasal returned damascus on 16 january , millerand took on clemenceau on 20th. syrian national congress meeting in damascus declared independent state of syria on 8th of march 1920. new state intended include portions of syria, palestine, , northern mesopotamia. faisal declared head of state. @ same time prince zeid, faisal s brother, declared regent of mesopotamia.

in april 1920, san remo conference handed out class mandates on syria france, , iraq , palestine britain. same conference ratified oil agreement reached @ london conference on 12 february, based on different version of long berenger agreement initialled in london on 21 december.

france had decided govern syria directly, , took action enforce french mandate of syria before terms had been accepted council of league of nations. french issued ultimatum , intervened militarily @ battle of maysalun in june 1920. deposed indigenous arab government, , removed king faisal damascus in august 1920. great britain appointed high commissioner , established own mandatory regime in palestine, without first obtaining approval council of league of nations, or obtaining formal cession of territory former sovereign, turkey.

iraq , persian gulf

in november 1914, british had occupied basra. according report of de bunsen committee, british interests in mesopotamia defined need protect western flank of india , protect commercial interests including oil. british became concerned berlin-baghdad railway. although never ratified, british had initialled anglo-ottoman convention of 1913.

as part of mesopotamian campaign, on 11 march 1917, british entered baghdad, armistice of mudros signed on 30 october 1918 although british continued advance, entering mosul on 14 november.

following award of british mandate of mesopotamia @ san remo, british faced iraqi revolt against british july through february 1921 kurdish revolt in northern iraq. following cairo conference decided faisal should installed ruler in mandatory iraq.

the kurds

an ethnographic map of eastern turkey after ww1

as cast, sykes-picot allocated part of northern kurdistan , substantial part of mosul vilayet including city of mosul france in area b, russia obtained bitlis , van in northern kurdistan (the contemplated arab state included kurds in eastern limit split between , b areas). bowman says there around 2.5 million kurds in turkey, in mountain region called kurdistan. kurdish peoples have not had state of own since fall of zand dynasty.

partitioning of ottoman turkey according aborted treaty of sèvres

sharif pasha presented memorandum on claims of kurd people paris peace conference in 1919 , suppressed report of king-crane commission recommended form of autonomy in natural geographical area lies between proposed armenia on north , mesopotamia on south, divide between euphrates , tigris western boundary, , persian frontier eastern boundary .

the russians gave territorial claims following bolshevik revolution , @ san remo, french awarded french mandate of syria , english british mandate of mesopotamia. subsequent treaty of sèvres potentially provided kurdish territory subject referendum , league of nations sanction within year of treaty. turkish war of independence led treaty being superseded treaty of lausanne in there no provision kurdish state.

the end result kurds included in territories of turkey, iraq, syria , iran.

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