Early modern period Modern history

1 modern period

1.1 asia

1.1.1 china
1.1.2 japan
1.1.3 india

1.1.3.1 british , dutch colonization




1.2 europe

1.2.1 tsardom of russia
1.2.2 reason , enlightenment
1.2.3 scientific revolution
1.2.4 french revolutions

1.2.4.1 national , legislative assembly
1.2.4.2 directory , napoleonic era


1.2.5 italian unification
1.2.6 end of modern period


1.3 north america

1.3.1 decolonization of north , south americas

early modern period

historians consider modern period approximately between 1500 , 1800. follows late middle ages period , marked first european colonies, rise of strong centralized governments, , beginnings of recognizable nation-states direct antecedents of today s states.

in africa , ottoman empire, muslim expansion took place in north , east africa. in west africa, various native nations existed. indian empires , civilizations of southeast asia vital link in spice trade. on indian subcontinent, great mughal empire existed. archipelagic empires, sultanate of malacca , later sultanate of johor, controlled southern areas.

in asia, various chinese dynasties , japanese shogunates controlled asian sphere. in japan, edo period 1600 1868 referred modern period. , in korea, rising of joseon dynasty enthronement of king gojong referred modern period. in americas, native americans had built large , varied civilization, including aztec empire , alliance, inca civilization, mayan empire , cities, , chibcha confederation. in west, european kingdoms , movements in movement of reformation , expansion. russia reached pacific coast in 1647 , consolidated control on russian far east in 19th century.

later religious trends of period saw end of expansion of muslims , muslim world. christians , christendom saw end of crusades , end of religious unity under roman catholic church. during time inquisitions , protestant reformations took place.

during modern period, age of discovery , trade undertaken western european nations. portugal, spain, netherlands, united kingdom , france went on colonial expansion , took possession of lands , set colonies in africa, southern asia, , north , south america. turkey colonized southeastern europe, , parts of west asia , north africa. russia took possession in eastern europe, asia, , north america.

asia

china

in china, urbanization increased population grew , division of labor grew more complex. large urban centers, such nanjing , beijing, contributed growth of private industry. in particular, small-scale industries grew up, specializing in paper, silk, cotton, , porcelain goods. part, however, relatively small urban centers markets proliferated around country. town markets traded food, necessary manufactures such pins or oil. despite xenophobia , intellectual introspection characteristic of increasingly popular new school of neo-confucianism, china under ming dynasty not isolated. foreign trade , other contacts outside world, particularly japan, increased considerably. chinese merchants explored of indian ocean, reaching east africa treasure voyages of zheng he.

the qing dynasty (1644–1912) founded after fall of ming, last han chinese dynasty, manchus. manchus formerly known jurchens. when beijing captured li zicheng s peasant rebels in 1644, chongzhen emperor, last ming emperor, committed suicide. manchus allied former ming general wu sangui , seized control of beijing, became new capital of qing dynasty. manchus adopted confucian norms of traditional chinese government in rule of china proper. schoppa, editor of columbia guide modern chinese history argues, date around 1780 beginning of modern china closer know today historical reality . allows have better baseline understand precipitous decline of chinese polity in nineteenth , twentieth centuries.

japan

in pre-modern japan following sengoku period of warring states , central government had been largely reestablished oda nobunaga , toyotomi hideyoshi during azuchi–momoyama period. after battle of sekigahara in 1600, central authority fell tokugawa ieyasu completed process , received title of shogun in 1603.

society in japanese tokugawa period (edo society), unlike shogunates before it, based on strict class hierarchy established toyotomi hideyoshi. daimyōs (feudal lords) @ top, followed warrior-caste of samurai, farmers, artisans, , traders ranking below. in parts of country, particularly smaller regions, daimyōs , samurai more or less identical, since daimyōs might trained samurai, , samurai might act local lords. otherwise, largely inflexible nature of social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces on time. taxes on peasantry set @ fixed amounts did not account inflation or other changes in monetary value. result, tax revenues collected samurai landowners worth less , less on time. led numerous confrontations between noble impoverished samurai , well-to-do peasants, ranging simple local disturbances bigger rebellions. none, however, proved compelling enough challenge established order until arrival of foreign powers.

india

on indian subcontinent, mughal empire ruled of india in 18th century. classic period ended death , defeat of emperor aurangzeb in 1707 rising hindu maratha empire, although dynasty continued 150 years. during period, empire marked highly centralized administration connecting different regions. significant monuments of mughals, visible legacy, date period characterised expansion of persian cultural influence in indian subcontinent, brilliant literary, artistic, , architectural results. maratha empire located in south west of present-day india , expanded under rule of peshwas, prime ministers of maratha empire. in 1761, maratha army lost third battle of panipat halted imperial expansion , empire divided confederacy of maratha states.

british , dutch colonization

the development of new imperialism saw conquest of eastern hemisphere territories colonial powers. commercial colonization of india commenced in 1757, after battle of plassey, when nawab of bengal surrendered dominions british east india company, in 1765, when company granted diwani, or right collect revenue, in bengal , bihar, or in 1772, when company established capital in calcutta, appointed first governor-general, warren hastings, , became directly involved in governance.

the maratha states, following anglo-maratha wars, lost british east india company in 1818 third anglo-maratha war. rule lasted until 1858, when, after indian rebellion of 1857 , consequent of government of india act 1858, british government assumed task of directly administering india in new british raj. in 1819 stamford raffles established singapore key trading post britain in rivalry dutch. however, rivalry cooled in 1824 when anglo-dutch treaty demarcated respective interests in southeast asia. 1850s onwards, pace of colonization shifted higher gear.

the dutch east india company (1800) , british east india company (1858) dissolved respective governments, took on direct administration of colonies. thailand spared experience of foreign rule, although, thailand affected power politics of western powers. colonial rule had profound effect on southeast asia. while colonial powers profited region s vast resources , large market, colonial rule did develop region varying extent.

europe

many major events caused europe change around start of 16th century, starting fall of constantinople in 1453, fall of muslim spain , discovery of americas in 1492, , martin luther s protestant reformation in 1517. in england modern period dated start of tudor period victory of henry vii on richard iii @ battle of bosworth in 1485. modern european history seen span start of 15th century, through age of reason , age of enlightenment in 17th , 18th centuries, until beginning of industrial revolution in late 18th century.

tsardom of russia


imperial russian cossacks (left) in paris in 1814

russia experienced territorial growth through 17th century, age of cossacks. cossacks warriors organized military communities, resembling pirates , pioneers of new world. native land of cossacks defined line of russian/ruthenian town-fortresses located on border steppe , stretching middle volga ryazan , tula, breaking abruptly south , extending dnieper via pereyaslavl. area settled population of free people practicing various trades , crafts.

in 1648, peasants of ukraine joined zaporozhian cossacks in rebellion against poland-lithuania during khmelnytsky uprising, because of social , religious oppression suffered under polish rule. in 1654 ukrainian leader, bohdan khmelnytsky, offered place ukraine under protection of russian tsar, aleksey i. aleksey s acceptance of offer led russo-polish war (1654–1667). finally, ukraine split along river dnieper, leaving western part (or right-bank ukraine) under polish rule , eastern part (left-bank ukraine , kiev) under russian. later, in 1670–71 don cossacks led stenka razin initiated major uprising in volga region, tsar s troops successful in defeating rebels. in east, rapid russian exploration , colonisation of huge territories of siberia led cossacks hunting valuable furs , ivory. russian explorers pushed eastward along siberian river routes, , mid-17th century there russian settlements in eastern siberia, on chukchi peninsula, along amur river, , on pacific coast. in 1648 bering strait between asia , north america passed first time fedot popov , semyon dezhnyov.

reason , enlightenment

traditionally, european intellectual transformation of , after renaissance bridged middle ages , modern era. age of reason in western world regarded being start of modern philosophy, , departure medieval approach, scholasticism. 17th-century philosophy called age of rationalism , considered succeed renaissance philosophy , precede age of enlightenment, consider earliest part of enlightenment era in philosophy, extending era 2 centuries. 18th century saw beginning of secularization in europe, rising notability in wake of french revolution.

the age of enlightenment time in western philosophy , cultural life centered upon 18th century in reason advocated primary source , legitimacy authority. enlightenment gained momentum more or less simultaneously in many parts of europe , america. developing during enlightenment era, renaissance humanism intellectual movement spread across europe. basic training of humanist speak , write (typically, in form of letter). term umanista comes latter part of 15th century. people associated studia humanitatis, novel curriculum competing quadrivium , scholastic logic.

renaissance humanism took close study of latin , greek classical texts, , antagonistic values of scholasticism emphasis on accumulated commentaries; , humanists involved in sciences, philosophies, arts , poetry of classical antiquity. self-consciously imitated classical latin , deprecated use of medieval latin. analogy perceived decline of latin, applied principle of ad fontes, or sources, across broad areas of learning.

the quarrel of ancients , moderns literary , artistic quarrel heated in 1690s , shook académie française. opposing 2 sides were, ancients (anciens) constrain choice of subjects drawn literature of antiquity , moderns (modernes), supported merits of authors of century of louis xiv. fontenelle followed digression sur les anciens et les modernes (1688), in took modern side, pressing argument modern scholarship allowed modern man surpass ancients in knowledge.

scientific revolution

the scientific revolution period when european ideas in classical physics, astronomy, biology, human anatomy, chemistry, , other classical sciences rejected , led doctrines supplanting had prevailed ancient greece middle ages lead transition modern science. period saw fundamental transformation in scientific ideas across physics, astronomy, , biology, in institutions supporting scientific investigation, , in more held picture of universe. individuals started question manners of things , questioning led scientific revolution, in turn formed foundations of contemporary sciences , establishment of several modern scientific fields.

the french revolutions

toward middle , latter stages of age of revolution, french political , social revolutions , radical change saw french governmental structure, absolute monarchy feudal privileges aristocracy , catholic clergy transform, changing forms based on enlightenment principles of citizenship , inalienable rights. first revolution led government national assembly, second legislative assembly, , third directory.

the changes accompanied violent turmoil included trial , execution of king, vast bloodshed , repression during reign of terror, , warfare involving every other major european power. subsequent events can traced revolution include napoleonic wars, 2 separate restorations of monarchy, , 2 additional revolutions modern france took shape. in following century, france governed @ 1 point or republic, constitutional monarchy, , 2 different empires.

national , legislative assembly

during french revolution, national assembly, existed june 17 july 9 of 1789, transitional body between estates-general , national constituent assembly.

the legislative assembly legislature of france october 1, 1791 september 1792. provided focus of political debate , revolutionary law-making between periods of national constituent assembly , of national convention.

the directory , napoleonic era

the executive directory body of 5 directors held executive power in france following convention , preceding consulate. period of regime (2 november 1795 until 10 november 1799), commonly known directory (or directoire) era, constitutes second last stage of french revolution. napoleon, before seizing title of emperor, elected first consul of consulate of france.

the campaigns of french emperor , general napoleon bonaparte characterized napoleonic era. born on corsica french invaded, , dying suspiciously on tiny british island of st. helena, brilliant commander, controlled french empire that, @ height, ruled large portion of europe directly paris, while many of friends , family ruled countries such spain, poland, several parts of italy , many other kingdoms republics , dependencies. napoleonic era changed face of europe forever, , old empires , kingdoms fell apart result of mighty , glorious surge of republicanism.

italian unification

italian unification political , social movement annexed different states of italian peninsula single state of italy in 19th century. there lack of consensus on exact dates beginning , end of period, many scholars agree process began end of napoleonic rule , congress of vienna in 1815, , approximately ended franco-prussian war in 1871, though last città irredente did not join kingdom of italy until after world war i.

end of modern period

toward end of modern period, europe dominated evolving system of mercantile capitalism in trade , new economy. european states , politics had characteristic of absolutism. french power , english revolutions dominated political scene. there evolved international balance of power held @ bay great conflagration until years later.

the end date of modern period associated industrial revolution, began in britain in 1750. significant date 1789, beginning of french revolution, drastically transformed state of european politics , ushered in prince edward era , modern europe.

north america

the french , indian wars series of conflicts in north america represented actions there accompanied european dynastic wars. in quebec, wars referred intercolonial wars. while conflicts involved spanish , dutch forces, pitted great britain, colonies , american indian allies on 1 side , france, colonies , indian allies on other.

the expanding french , british colonies contending control of western, or interior, territories. whenever european countries went war, there actions within , these colonies although dates of conflict did not coincide of larger conflicts.

john trumbull s declaration of independence, showing five-man committee in charge of drafting declaration in 1776 presents work second continental congress in philadelphia

beginning age of revolution, american revolution , ensuing political upheaval during last half of 18th century saw thirteen colonies of north america overthrow governance of parliament of great britain, , reject british monarchy become sovereign united states of america. in period colonies first rejected authority of parliament govern them without representation, , formed self-governing independent states. second continental congress joined against british defend self-governance in armed conflict 1775 1783 known american revolutionary war (also called american war of independence).

the american revolution began fighting @ lexington , concord. on july 4, 1776, issued declaration of independence, proclaimed independence great britain , formation of cooperative union. in june 1776, benjamin franklin appointed member of committee of 5 drafted declaration of independence. although temporarily disabled gout , unable attend meetings of committee, franklin made several small changes draft sent him thomas jefferson.

the rebellious states defeated great britain in american revolutionary war, first successful colonial war of independence. while states had rejected governance of parliament, through declaration new united states rejected legitimacy of monarchy demand allegiance. war raged 7 years, effective american victory, followed formal british abandonment of claim united states treaty of paris.

north america 1797

the philadelphia convention set current united states; united states constitution ratification following year made states part of single republic limited central government. bill of rights, comprising ten constitutional amendments guaranteeing many fundamental civil rights , freedoms, ratified in 1791.

decolonization of north , south americas

the decolonization of americas process countries in americas gained independence european rule. decolonization began series of revolutions in late 18th , early-to-mid-19th centuries. spanish american wars of independence numerous wars against spanish rule in spanish america took place during 19th century, 1808 until 1829, directly related napoleonic french invasion of spain. conflict started short-lived governing juntas established in chuquisaca , quito opposing composition of supreme central junta of seville.

when central junta fell french, numerous new juntas appeared across americas, resulting in chain of newly independent countries stretching argentina , chile in south, mexico in north. after death of king ferdinand vii, in 1833, cuba , puerto rico remained under spanish rule, until spanish–american war in 1898. unlike spanish, portuguese did not divide colonial territory in america. captaincies created subdued centralized administration in salvador (later relocated rio de janeiro) reported directly portuguese crown until independence in 1822, becoming empire of brazil.