Science and philosophy Modern history

1 science , philosophy

1.1 notable persons
1.2 social darwinism
1.3 marxist society

science , philosophy

replacing classical physics in use since end of scientific revolution, modern physics arose in 20th century advent of quantum physics, substituting mathematical studies experimental studies , examining equations build theoretical structure. old quantum theory collection of results predate modern quantum mechanics, never complete or self-consistent. collection of heuristic prescriptions quantum mechanics first corrections classical mechanics. outside realm of quantum physics, various aether theories in classical physics, supposed fifth element such luminiferous aether, nullified michelson-morley experiment—an attempt detect motion of earth through aether. in biology, darwinism gained acceptance, promoting concept of adaptation in theory of natural selection. fields of geology, astronomy , psychology made strides , gained new insights. in medicine, there advances in medical theory , treatments.

xinhai revolution in shanghai; chen qimei organized shanghainese civilians start uprising , successful. picture above nanjing road after uprising, hung 5 races under 1 union flags used revolutionaries.

the assertions of chinese philosophy began integrate concepts of western philosophy, steps toward modernization. time of xinhai revolution in 1911, there many calls, such may fourth movement, abolish old imperial institutions , practices of china. there attempts incorporate democracy, republicanism, , industrialism chinese philosophy, notably sun yat-sen (sūn yì xiān, in 1 mandarin form of name) @ beginning of 20th century. mao zedong (máo zé dōng) added marxist-leninist thought. when communist party of china took on power, previous schools of thought, excepting notably legalism, denounced backward, , later purged during cultural revolution.

starting one-hundred years before 20th century, enlightenment spiritual philosophy challenged in various quarters around 1900s. developed earlier secular traditions, modern humanist ethical philosophies affirmed dignity , worth of people, based on ability determine right , wrong appealing universal human qualities, particularly rationality, without resorting supernatural or alleged divine authority religious texts. liberal humanists such rousseau , kant, universal law of reason guided way toward total emancipation kind of tyranny. these ideas challenged, example young karl marx, criticized project of political emancipation (embodied in form of human rights), asserting symptomatic of dehumanization supposed oppose. friedrich nietzsche, humanism nothing more secular version of theism. in genealogy of morals, argues human rights exist means weak collectively constrain strong. on view, such rights not facilitate emancipation of life, rather deny it. in 20th century, notion human beings rationally autonomous challenged concept humans driven unconscious irrational desires.

notable persons

sigmund freud renowned redefinition of sexual desire primary motivational energy of human life, therapeutic techniques, including use of free association, theory of transference in therapeutic relationship, , interpretation of dreams sources of insight unconscious desires.

albert einstein known theories of special relativity , general relativity. made important contributions statistical mechanics, mathematical treatment of brownian motion, resolution of paradox of specific heats, , connection of fluctuations , dissipation. despite reservations interpretation, einstein made contributions quantum mechanics and, indirectly, quantum field theory, through theoretical studies of photon.

social darwinism

at end of 19th century, social darwinism promoted , included various ideologies based on concept competition among individuals, groups, nations, or ideas natural framework social evolution in human societies. in view, society s advancement dependent on survival of fittest , term in fact coined herbert spencer , referred in gospel of wealth written andrew carnegie.

marxist society

the communist manifesto

karl marx summarized approach history , politics in opening line of first chapter of communist manifesto (1848). wrote:

the history of hitherto existing society history of class struggles.

the manifesto went through number of editions 1872 1890; notable new prefaces written marx , engels 1872 german edition, 1882 russian edition, 1883 german edition, , 1888 english edition. in general, marxism identified 5 (and 1 transitional) successive stages of development in western europe.

^ f.k richtmyer, e.h kennard, t. lauristen (1955). introduction . introduction modern physics (5th edition ed.). new york: mcgraw-hill book company. p. 1. lccn 55-6862.
^ concepts derived @ times abstractions nature baselines or reference states. these can unattainable in practice, such free space (electromagnetism) , practical absolute 0 temperature (ed. special negative temperatures values colder 0 points of scales still warmer absolute zero).
^ ter haar, d. (1967). old quantum theory. pergamon press. p. 206. 
^ matrix mechanics , wave mechanics supplanted other studies end era of old-quantum theory.
^ substance in physics considered medium through light propagates.
^ chinese enlightenment. vera schwarcz. p4.
^ ralph adams cram. second coming of art . atlantic monthly, volume 119. philip gengembre hubert. p193
^ enlightenment contested. jonathan i. israel. p765
^ modern christian thought: twentieth century, volume 2. james c. livingston, francis schüssler fiorenza. p2.
^ herman dooyeweerd . routledge encyclopedia of philosophy. routledge (cor), luciano floridi, edward craig. p113.

see also: d. h. th. vollenhoven.
^ counter-enlightenments: eighteenth century present. graeme garrard. routledge, 2004. p13..
^ see also: counter-enlightenment, max weber, , Émile durkheim.
^ known continental philosophy.
^ compact oxford english dictionary. oxford university press. 2007. humanism n. 1 rationalistic system of thought attaching prime importance human rather divine or supernatural matters. 2 renaissance cultural movement turned away medieval scholastic-ism , revived interest in ancient greek , roman thought.  typically, abridgments of definition omit senses except #1, such in cambridge advanced learner s dictionary, collins essential english dictionary, , webster s concise dictionary. new york: rhr press. 2001. p. 177. 
^ collins concise dictionary. harpercollins (published 1990). 1999. rejection of religion in favour of belief in advancement of humanity own efforts. 
^ in 1888 english edition of communist manifest, friedrich engels added footnote commentary: is, written history. in 1847, prehistory of society, social organization existing previous recorded history, unknown. since haxthausen discovered common ownership of land in russia, maurer concluded social foundation teutonic races started in history, , , village communities found be, or have been, primitive form of society everywhere india ireland. inner organization of primitive communistic society laid bare, in typical form, morgan s work on true nature of gens , relation tribe. dissolution of these primaeval communities society begins differentiated separate , antagonistic classes. have attempte retrace process of dissolution in der ursprung der familie, des privateigenthums und des staats , marx, karl, friedrich engels, leon trotsky, , karl marx. communist manifesto , relevance today. chippendale, n.s.w.: resistance books, 1998. p. 46, see cornelius castoriadis, political , social writings. minneapolis: university of minnesota press, 1993. p. 204
^ marx makes no claim have produced master key history. historical materialism not historico-philosophic theory of marche generale imposed fate upon every people, whatever historic circumstances in finds . (marx, karl, letter editor of russian paper otetchestvennye zapiskym, 1877) ideas, explains, based on concrete study of actual conditions pertained in europe.