Origins and early history Manchu people

aguda, emperor taizu of jurchen jin

the manchus descended jurchen people earlier established jin dynasty (1115–1234) in china, semi-mythological chronicles of 3 sovereigns , 5 emperors there mention of sushen, tungusic people northern manchurian region of northeast asia, paid bows , arrows tribute emperor shun , later zhou dynasty. sushen used flint-headed wooden arrows, farmed, hunted , fished, , lived in caves , trees. cognates sushen or jichen (稷真) again appear in shan hai jing , book of wei during dynastic era referring tungusic mohe tribes of far northeast. mohe practiced pig farming extensively , sedentary, , used both pig , dog skins coats. predominantly farmers , grew soybeans, wheat, millet , rice, in addition hunting.

in 10th century ce, term jurchen first appeared in documents of late tang dynasty in reference state of balhae in present-day northeastern china.

following fall of balhae, jurchens became vassals of khitan-led liao dynasty. jurchens in yalu river region tributaries of goryeo since reign of wang geon, called upon them during wars of later 3 kingdoms period, jurchens switched allegiance between liao , goryeo multiple times, taking advantage of tension between 2 nations; posing potential threat goryeo s border security, jurchens offered tribute goryeo court, expecting lavish gifts in return. in year 1114, wanyan aguda united jurchen tribes , established jin dynasty (1115–1234). brother , successor, wanyan wuqimai defeated liao dynasty. after fall of liao dynasty, jurchens went war northern song dynasty, , captured of northern china in jin–song wars. during jin dynasty, first jurchen script came use in 1120s. derived khitan script.

the jurchens sedentary, settled farmers advanced agriculture. farmed grain , millet cereal crops, grew flax, , raised oxen, pigs, sheep , horses. farming way of life different pastoral nomadism of mongols , khitans on steppes.

in 1206, mongols, vassals jurchens, rose in mongolia. leader, genghis khan, led mongol troops against jurchens, defeated Ögedei khan in 1234. under mongols control, jurchens divided 2 groups , treated differently: ones born , raised in north china , fluent in chinese considered chinese (han), people born , raised in jurchen homeland (manchuria) without chinese-speaking abilities treated mongols politically. time, jurchens of north china increasingly merged han chinese while living in homeland started mongolized. adopted mongolian customs, names , mongolian language. time went on, fewer , fewer jurchens recognize own script.

the mongol-led yuan dynasty replaced ming dynasty in 1368. in 1387, ming forces defeated mongol commander naghachu s resisting forces settled in haixi area , began summon jurchen tribes pay tribute. @ time, jurchen clans vassals joseon dynasty of korea such odoli , huligai. elites served in korean royal bodyguard. joseon koreans tried deal military threat posed jurchen using both forceful means , incentives, , launching military attacks. @ same time tried appease them titles , degrees, traded them, , sought acculturate them having korean women marry jurchens , integrating them korean culture. despite these measures, however, fighting continued between jurchen , koreans. relationship stopped ming dynasty government wanted jurchens protect border. in 1403, ahacu, chieftain of huligai, paid tribute yongle emperor of ming dynasty. after that, möngke temür, chieftain of odoli clan of jianzhou jurchens, defected paying tribute korea, becoming tributary state china instead. yi seong-gye, taejo of joseon, asked ming empire send möngke temür refused. yongle emperor determined wrest jurchens out of korean influence , have china dominate them instead. korea tried persuade möngke temür reject ming overtures, unsuccessful, , möngke temür submitted ming empire. since then, more , more jurchen tribes presented tribute ming empire in succession. ming divided them 384 guards, , jurchen became vassals ming empire. during ming dynasty, name jurchen land nurgan. jurchens became part of ming dynasty s nurgan regional military commission under yongle emperor, ming forces erecting yongning temple stele in 1413, @ headquarters of nurgan. stele inscribed in chinese, jurchen, mongolian, , tibetan.

in 1449, mongol taishi esen attacked ming empire , captured zhengtong emperor in tumu. jurchen guards in jianzhou , haixi cooperated esen s action, more attacked in mongol invasion. many jurchen chieftains lost hereditary certificates granted ming government. had present tribute secretariats (中书舍人) less reward ming court in time when heads of guards – unpopular development. subsequently, more , more jurchens recognised ming empire s declining power due esen s invasion. zhengtong emperor s capture directly caused jurchen guards go out of control. tribal leaders, such cungšan , wang gao, brazenly plundered ming territory. @ time, jurchen script officially abandoned. more jurchens adopted mongolian writing language , fewer used chinese. final recorded jurchen writing dates 1526.

the manchus mistaken nomadic people. not nomads. manchu way of life (economy) described agricultural, farming crops , raising animals on farms. manchus practiced slash-and-burn agriculture in areas north of shenyang. haixi jurchens semi-agricultural, jianzhou jurchens , maolian (毛怜) jurchens sedentary, while hunting , fishing way of life of wild jurchens . han chinese society resembled of sedentary jianzhou , maolian, farmers. hunting, archery on horseback, horsemanship, livestock raising, , sedentary agriculture part of jianzhou jurchens culture. in spite of fact manchus practiced equestrianism , archery on horseback, manchus immediate progenitors practiced sedentary agriculture. although manchus partook in hunting, sedentary. primary mode of production farming while lived in villages, forts, , walled towns. jurchen jin predecessors practiced farming.

魏焕《皇明九边考》卷二《辽东镇边夷考》 translation sino-ǰürčed relations during yung-lo period, 1403-1424 henry serruys

although mohe ancestors did not respect dogs, jurchens began respect dogs around time of ming dynasty, , passed tradition on manchus. prohibited in jurchen culture use dog skin, , forbidden jurchens harm, kill, or eat dogs.

for political reasons, jurchen leader nurhaci chose variously emphasize either differences or similarities in lifestyles other peoples mongols. nurhaci said mongols languages of chinese , koreans different, clothing , way of life same. same manchus (jušen) , mongols. our languages different, our clothing , way of life same. later nurhaci indicated bond mongols not based in real shared culture. pragmatic reasons of mutual opportunism, since nurhaci said mongols: mongols raise livestock, eat meat, , wear pelts. people till fields , live on grain. 2 not 1 country , have different languages.

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