World Wars era Modern history

1 world wars era

1.1 start of 20th century
1.2 edwardian britain
1.3 world war i
1.4 revolutions , war
1.5 1920s , depression
1.6 nanjing period
1.7 league , crises
1.8 tripartite pact
1.9 world war ii

world wars era

start of 20th century

four years 20th century saw russo-japanese war battle of port arthur establishing empire of japan world power. russians in constant pursuit of warm water port on pacific ocean, navy maritime trade. manchurian campaign of russian empire fought against japanese on manchuria , korea. major theatres of operations southern manchuria, area around liaodong peninsula , mukden, , seas around korea, japan, , yellow sea. resulting campaigns, in fledgling japanese military consistently attained victory on russian forces arrayed against them, unexpected world observers. these victories, time transpired, dramatically transform distribution of power in east asia, resulting in reassessment of japan s recent entry onto world stage. embarrassing string of defeats increased russian popular dissatisfaction inefficient , corrupt tsarist government.

the russian revolution of 1905 wave of mass political unrest through vast areas of russian empire. of directed against government, while undirected. included terrorism, worker strikes, peasant unrests, , military mutinies. led establishment of limited constitutional monarchy, establishment of state duma of russian empire, , multi-party system.

in china, qing dynasty overthrown following xinhai revolution. xinhai revolution began wuchang uprising on october 10, 1911 , ended abdication of emperor puyi on february 12, 1912. primary parties conflict imperial forces of qing dynasty (1644–1911), , revolutionary forces of chinese revolutionary alliance (tongmenghui).

edwardian britain

the edwardian era in united kingdom period spanning reign of king edward vii end of first world war, including years surrounding sinking of rms titanic. in years of period, second boer war in south africa split country anti- , pro-war factions. imperial policies of conservatives proved unpopular , in general election of 1906 liberals won huge landslide. liberal government unable proceed of radical programme without support of house of lords, largely conservative. conflict between 2 houses of parliament on people s budget led reduction in power of peers in 1910. general election in january year returned hung parliament balance of power held labour , irish nationalist members.

world war i

the causes of world war included many factors, including conflicts , antagonisms of 4 decades leading war. triple entente name given loose alignment between united kingdom, france, , russia after signing of anglo-russian entente in 1907. alignment of 3 powers, supplemented various agreements japan, united states, , spain, constituted powerful counterweight triple alliance of germany, austria-hungary, , italy, third having concluded additional secret agreement france nullifying alliance commitments. militarism, alliances, imperialism, , nationalism played major roles in conflict. immediate origins of war lay in decisions taken statesmen , generals during july crisis of 1914, spark (or casus belli) assassination of archduke franz ferdinand of austria.

however, crisis did not exist in void; came after long series of diplomatic clashes between great powers on european , colonial issues in decade prior 1914 had left tensions high. diplomatic clashes can traced changes in balance of power in europe since 1870. example baghdad railway planned connect ottoman empire cities of konya , baghdad line through modern-day turkey, syria , iraq. railway became source of international disputes during years preceding world war i. although has been argued resolved in 1914 before war began, has been argued railroad cause of first world war. fundamentally war sparked tensions on territory in balkans. austria-hungary competed serbia , russia territory , influence in region , pulled rest of great powers conflict through various alliances , treaties. balkan wars 2 wars in south-eastern europe in 1912–1913 in course of balkan league (bulgaria, montenegro, greece, , serbia) first captured ottoman-held remaining part of thessaly, macedonia, epirus, albania , of thrace , fell out on division of spoils, incorporation of romania time.

various periods of world war i; 1914.07.28 (tsar nicholas ii of russia orders partial mobilization against austria-hungary), 1914.08.01 (germany declares war on russia), 1914.08.03 (germany declares war on russia s ally france), 1914.08.04 (britain declares war on germany), 1914.12 (british , german christmas truce), 1915.12 (french , german christmas truce), 1916.12 (battle of magdhaba), 1917.12 (british troops take jerusalem ottoman empire), , 1918.11.11 (world war ends: germany signs armistice agreement allies).

allies , central powers in first world war

         allied powers , areas

         central powers , colonies or occupied territory

     neutral countries

the first world war began in 1914 , lasted final armistice in 1918. allied powers, led british empire, france, russia until march 1918, japan , united states after 1917, defeated central powers, led german empire, austro-hungarian empire , ottoman empire. war caused disintegration of 4 empires—the austro-hungarian, german, ottoman, , russian ones—as radical change in european , west asian maps. allied powers before 1917 referred triple entente, , central powers referred triple alliance.

much of fighting in world war took place along western front, within system of opposing manned trenches , fortifications (separated no man s land ) running north sea border of switzerland. on eastern front, vast eastern plains , limited rail network prevented trench warfare stalemate developing, although scale of conflict large. hostilities occurred on , under sea and—for first time—from air. more 9 million soldiers died on various battlefields, , many more in participating countries home fronts on account of food shortages , genocide committed under cover of various civil wars , internal conflicts. notably, more people died of worldwide influenza outbreak @ end of war , shortly after died in hostilities. unsanitary conditions engendered war, severe overcrowding in barracks, wartime propaganda interfering public health warnings, , migration of many soldiers around world helped outbreak become pandemic.

ultimately, world war created decisive break old world order had emerged after napoleonic wars, modified mid-19th century s nationalistic revolutions. results of world war important factors in development of world war ii approximately 20 years later. more immediate time, partitioning of ottoman empire political event redrew political boundaries of west asia. huge conglomeration of territories , peoples formerly ruled sultan of ottoman empire divided several new nations. partitioning brought creation of modern arab world , republic of turkey. league of nations granted france mandates on syria , lebanon , granted united kingdom mandates on mesopotamia , palestine (which later divided 2 regions: palestine , transjordan). parts of ottoman empire on arabian peninsula became parts of today saudi arabia , yemen.

revolutions , war


national flag of soviet union.

the russian revolution series of revolutions in russia in 1917, destroyed tsarist autocracy , led creation of soviet union. following abdication of nicholas ii of russia, russian provisional government established. in october 1917, red faction revolution occurred in red guard, armed groups of workers , deserting soldiers directed bolshevik party, seized control of saint petersburg (then known petrograd) , began immediate armed takeover of cities , villages throughout former russian empire.

another action in 1917 of note armistice signed between russia , central powers @ brest-litovsk. condition peace, treaty central powers conceded huge portions of former russian empire imperial germany , ottoman empire, upsetting nationalists , conservatives. bolsheviks made peace german empire , central powers, had promised russian people prior revolution. vladimir lenin s decision has been attributed sponsorship foreign office of wilhelm ii, german emperor, offered latter in hopes revolution, russia withdraw world war i. suspicion bolstered german foreign ministry s sponsorship of lenin s return petrograd. western allies expressed dismay @ bolsheviks, upset at:

in addition, there concern, shared many central powers well, socialist revolutionary ideas spread west. hence, many of these countries expressed support whites, including provision of troops , supplies. winston churchill declared bolshevism must strangled in cradle .

the russian civil war multi-party war occurred within former russian empire after russian provisional government collapsed , soviets under domination of bolshevik party assumed power, first in petrograd (st. petersburg) , in other places. in wake of october revolution, old russian imperial army had been demobilized; volunteer-based red guard bolsheviks main military force, augmented armed military component of cheka, bolshevik state security apparatus. there instituted mandatory conscription of rural peasantry red army. opposition of rural russians red army conscription units overcome taking hostages , shooting them when necessary in order force compliance. former tsarist officers utilized military specialists (voenspetsy), taking families hostage in order ensure loyalty. @ start of war, three-fourths of red army officer corps composed of former tsarist officers. end, 83% of red army divisional , corps commanders ex-tsarist soldiers.

the principal fighting occurred between bolshevik red army , forces of white army. many foreign armies warred against red army, notably allied forces, yet many volunteer foreigners fought in both sides of russian civil war. other nationalist , regional political groups participated in war, including ukrainian nationalist green army, ukrainian anarchist black army , black guards, , warlords such ungern von sternberg. intense fighting took place 1918 1920. major military operations ended on 25 october 1922 when red army occupied vladivostok, held provisional priamur government. last enclave of white forces ayano-maysky district on pacific coast. majority of fighting ended in 1920 defeat of general pyotr wrangel in crimea, notable resistance in areas continued until 1923 (e.g., kronstadt uprising, tambov rebellion, basmachi revolt, , final resistance of white movement in far east).

in 1917, china declared war on germany in hope of recovering lost province, under japanese control. new culture movement occupied period 1917 1923. chinese representatives refused sign treaty of versailles, due intense pressure student protesters , public opinion alike.

the may fourth movement helped rekindle then-fading cause of republican revolution. in 1917 sun yat-sen had become commander-in-chief of rival military government in guangzhou in collaboration southern warlords. sun s efforts obtain aid western democracies ignored, however, , in 1920 turned soviet union, had achieved own revolution. soviets sought befriend chinese revolutionists offering scathing attacks on western imperialism. political expediency, soviet leadership initiated dual policy of support both sun , newly established chinese communist party (ccp).

the flag of kuomintang, 1 canton of flag of republic of china.

the policy of working kuomintang , chiang kai-shek had been recommended dutch communist henk sneevliet, chosen in 1923 comintern representative in china due revolutionary experience in dutch indies, had major role in founding partai komunis indonesia (pki) – , felt chinese party small , weak undertake major effort on own (see henk sneevliet s work comintern).

in 1927, kuomintang-ccp rivalry led split in revolutionary ranks. ccp , left wing of kuomintang had decided move seat of nationalist government guangzhou wuhan. chiang kai-shek, northern expedition proving successful, set forces destroying shanghai ccp apparatus , established anti-communist government @ nanjing in april 1927.

the 1920s , depression

the interwar period period between end of first world war , beginning of second world war. period marked turmoil in of world, europe struggled recover devastation of first world war.

in north america, first half of period, people experienced considerable prosperity in roaring twenties. social , societal upheaval known roaring twenties began in north america , spread europe in aftermath of world war i. roaring twenties, called jazz age , saw exposition of social, artistic, , cultural dynamism. normalcy returned politics, jazz music blossomed, flapper redefined modern womanhood, art deco peaked. spirit of roaring twenties marked general feeling of discontinuity associated modernity, break traditions. seemed feasible through modern technology. new technologies, automobiles, movies , radio proliferated modernity large part of population. 1920s saw general favor of practicality, in architecture in daily life. 1920s further distinguished several inventions , discoveries, extensive industrial growth , rise in consumer demand , aspirations, , significant changes in lifestyle.

europe between 1920 , 1938.

europe spent these years rebuilding , coming terms vast human cost of conflict. economy of united states became increasingly intertwined of europe. in germany, weimar republic gave way episodes of political , economic turmoil, culminated german hyperinflation of 1923 , failed beer hall putsch of same year. when germany no longer afford war payments, wall street invested heavily in european debts keep european economy afloat large consumer market american mass-produced goods. middle of decade, economic development soared in europe, , roaring twenties broke out in germany, britain , france, second half of decade becoming known golden twenties . in france , francophone canada, called années folles ( crazy years ).

worldwide prosperity changed dramatically onset of great depression in 1929. wall street crash of 1929 served punctuate end of previous era, great depression set in. great depression worldwide economic downturn starting in places in 1929 , ending @ different times in 1930s or 1940s different countries. largest , important economic depression in 20th century, , used in 21st century example of how far world s economy can fall.

the depression had devastating effects in virtually every country, rich or poor. international trade plunged half two-thirds, did personal income, tax revenue, prices , profits. cities around world hit hard, dependent on heavy industry. construction virtually halted in many countries. farming , rural areas suffered crop prices fell 60 percent. facing plummeting demand few alternate sources of jobs, areas dependent on primary sector industries suffered most.

the great depression ended @ different times in different countries effect lasting next era. america s great depression ended in 1941 america s entry world war ii. majority of countries set relief programs, , underwent sort of political upheaval, pushing them left or right. in world states, desperate citizens turned toward nationalist demagogues—the infamous being adolf hitler—setting stage next era of war. convulsion brought on worldwide depression resulted in rise of nazism. in asia, japan became ever more assertive power, regards china.

nanjing period


with sino-german cooperation until 1941, chinese industry , military improved prior war against japan.

the nanjing decade of 1928–37 1 of consolidation , accomplishment under leadership of nationalists, mixed positive record in economy, social progress, development of democracy, , cultural creativity. of harsh aspects of foreign concessions , privileges in china moderated through diplomacy.

the league , crises

the interwar period marked radical change in international order, away balance of power had dominated pre–world war europe. 1 main institution meant bring stability league of nations, created after first world war intention of maintaining world security , peace , encouraging economic growth between member countries. league undermined bellicosity of nazi germany, imperial japan, soviet union, , mussolini s italy, , non-participation of united states, leading many question effectiveness , legitimacy.

a series of international crises strained league limits, earliest being invasion of manchuria japan , abyssinian crisis of 1935/36 in italy invaded abyssinia, 1 of free african nations @ time. league tried enforce economic sanctions upon italy, no avail. incident highlighted french , british weakness, exemplified reluctance alienate italy , lose ally. limited actions taken western powers pushed mussolini s italy towards alliance hitler s germany anyway. abyssinian war showed hitler how weak league , encouraged remilitarization of rhineland in flagrant disregard of treaty of versailles. first in series of provocative acts culminating in invasion of poland in september 1939 , beginning of second world war.

few chinese had illusions japanese designs on china. hungry raw materials , pressed growing population, japan initiated seizure of manchuria in september 1931 , established ex-qing emperor puyi head of puppet state of manchukuo in 1932. during sino-japanese war (1937–1945), loss of manchuria, , vast potential industrial development , war industries, blow kuomintang economy. league of nations, established @ end of world war i, unable act in face of japanese defiance. after 1940, conflicts between kuomintang , communists became more frequent in areas not under japanese control. communists expanded influence wherever opportunities presented through mass organizations, administrative reforms, , land- , tax-reform measures favoring peasants—while kuomintang attempted neutralize spread of communist influence.

tripartite pact

the second sino-japanese war had seen tensions rise between imperial japan , united states; events such panay incident , nanking massacre turned american public opinion against japan. occupation of french indochina in years of 1940–41, , continuing war in china, united states placed embargoes on japan of strategic materials such scrap metal , oil, vitally needed war effort. japanese faced option of either withdrawing china , losing face or seizing , securing new sources of raw materials in resource-rich, european-controlled colonies of south east asia—specifically british malaya , dutch east indies (modern-day indonesia). in 1940, imperial japan signed tripartite pact nazi germany , fascist italy.

world war ii


national flag of third reich (nazi germany).

the second world war global military conflict took place in 1939–1945. largest , deadliest war in history, culminating in holocaust , ending dropping of atom bomb.

even though japan had been fighting in china since 1937, conventional view war began on september 1, 1939, when nazi germany invaded poland, drang nach osten. within 2 days united kingdom , france declared war on germany, though fighting confined poland. pursuant then-secret provision of non-aggression molotov-ribbentrop pact, soviet union joined germany on september 17, 1939, conquer poland , divide eastern europe.

the allies made of poland, united kingdom, france, australia, canada, new zealand, south africa, british commonwealth countries controlled directly uk, such indian empire. of these countries declared war on germany in september 1939.

following lull in fighting, known phoney war , germany invaded western europe in may 1940. 6 weeks later, france, in mean time attacked italy well, surrendered germany, tried unsuccessfully conquer britain. on september 27, germany, italy, , japan signed mutual defense agreement, tripartite pact, , known axis powers.

ensign of imperial japanese navy.

nine months later, on june 22, 1941, germany launched massive invasion of soviet union, promptly joined allies. germany engaged in fighting war on 2 fronts. proved mistake germany – germany had not carried out invasion of britain , war turned against axis.

on december 7, 1941, japan attacked united states @ pearl harbor, bringing war on allied side. china joined allies, did of rest of world. china in turmoil @ time, , attacked japanese armies through guerilla-type warfare. beginning of 1942, major combatants aligned follows: british commonwealth, united states, , soviet union fighting germany , italy; , british commonwealth, china, , united states fighting japan. united kingdom, united states, soviet union , china referred trusteeship of powerful during world war ii , recognized allied big 4 in declaration united nations these 4 countries considered 4 policemen or 4 sheriffs of allies power , primary victors of world war ii. through august 1945, battles raged across of europe, in north atlantic ocean, across north africa, throughout southeast asia, throughout china, across pacific ocean , in air on japan.

italy surrendered in september 1943 , split northern germany-occupied puppet state , allies-friendly state in south; germany surrendered in may 1945. following atomic bombings of hiroshima , nagasaki, japan surrendered, marking end of war on september 2, 1945.

it possible around 62 million people died in war; estimates vary greatly. 60% of casualties civilians, died result of disease, starvation, genocide (in particular, holocaust), , aerial bombing. former soviet union , china suffered casualties. estimates place deaths in soviet union @ around 23 million, while china suffered 10 million. no country lost greater portion of population poland: approximately 5.6 million, or 16%, of pre-war population of 34.8 million died.

flag of italian empire.

the holocaust (which means burnt whole ) deliberate , systematic murder of millions of jews , other unwanted during world war ii nazi regime in germany. several differing views exist regarding whether intended occur war s beginning, or if plans came later. regardless, persecution of jews extended before war started, such in kristallnacht (night of broken glass). nazis used propaganda great effect stir anti-semitic feelings within ordinary germans.

after world war ii, europe informally split western , soviet spheres of influence. western europe later aligned north atlantic treaty organization (nato) , eastern europe warsaw pact. there shift in power western europe , british empire 2 new superpowers, united states , soviet union. these 2 rivals later face off in cold war. in asia, defeat of japan led democratization. china s civil war continued through , after war, resulting in establishment of people s republic of china. former colonies of european powers began road independence.